Proposed Offshore Wind Area: Indian Ocean off Bunbury, Western Australia

STOP THESE THINGS

Stunned Still: Offshore Wind Farm Power
Cables Leave Crabs Mesmerised
& Motionless

(https://stopthesethings.files.wordpress.com/2021/10/brown-crab4.jpg)

Seabirds, whales and dolphins aren’t offshore wind’s only victims – crabs are being mesmerised by the electromagnetic fields produced by the power cables that connect turbines to each other and to the grid.

A scientific study has found that the magnetic fields generated by these cables attract crabs that then remain in place, fixated on the magnetic field, effectively immobilising them.

For a creature that needs to move over large distances over the seafloor to feed and breed, offshore wind farms may well amount to a death sentence for an entire species, over the longer term. And the loss of a tasty protein source won’t just disappoint diners, it could also spell the death knell for crab fishers around Britain’s coasts.

Jonathan Chadwick reports on just the latest victim of so-called ‘green’ energy.
:
Underwater power cables are ‘mesmerising’ brown crabs and causing biological changes that could affect their migration habits, scientists warn
Daily Mail
Jonathan Chadwick
11 October 2021

Underwater power cables laid along the sea floors for offshore wind farms are
‘mesmerising’ brown crabs and causing biological changes that could affect their migration habits, a new study reveals.

Experts in Scotland found exposure to electromagnetism triggered ‘behavioural and physiological responses’ in around 60 brown crabs at the St Abbs Marine Station.

This causes cellular changes in the crab species, affecting blood cells and possibly even making them more prone to infection, they warn.

Oddly, the cables for offshore renewable energy also emit an electromagnetic field that attracts the crabs and causes them to become stationary, which affects breeding and migration, according to the team.

(https://stopthesethings.files.wordpress.com/2021/10/brown-crab.png)

The brown crab (Cancer pagurus, pictured), also known as the edible crab, is the most
commercially important species of crab in Europe

The brown crab (Cancer pagurus) is the largest crab species in British waters and is still sought by seafood fans for its delicate and sweet taste.

It’s the most ‘commercially important’ species of crab in Europe, with 10,000 tonnes harvested from the English Channel every year, according to the Wildlife Trusts.

So any negative effects to their breeding and migration could heavily impact population numbers and stocks.
:
‘Underwater cables emit an electromagnetic field,’ explained study author Alastair Lyndon at Heriot-Watt University.

‘When it’s at a strength of 500 microTeslas and above, which is about 5 per cent of the strength of a fridge door magnet, the crabs seem to be attracted to it and just sit still.

‘That’s not a problem in itself. But if they’re not moving they’re not foraging for food or seeking a mate.

‘The change in activity levels also leads to changes in sugar metabolism – they store more sugar and produce less lactate, just like humans.’

The researchers used St Abbs Marine Station’s purpose-built aquarium laboratory for the experiment.

‘The aquarium lab is composed entirely of non-metallic materials, which means there is minimal electromagnetic interference,’ said Kevin Scott at St Abbs Marine Station.

Electromagnetic field strengths of 250 microTeslas were found to have ‘limited physiological and behavioural impacts’.

However, exposure to 500 nd 1000 microTeslas were found to disrupt circadian rhythms and alter total haemocyte count. In invertebrates, haemocytes are cells that make up the haemolymph, a fluid analogous to blood.

‘We found that exposure to higher levels of electromagnetic field strength changed the number of blood cells in the crabs’ bodies,’ said Scott.

‘This could have a range of consequences, like making them more susceptible to bacterial infection.’

The team warns changes in the species’ behaviour could hit fishing markets, as the crabs are the UK’s second most valuable crustacean catch and the most valuable inshore catch.

A number of offshore wind farms are installed and planned around Scotland’s coast, which require extensive underwater cabling, and researchers said further work is needed to ensure they do not destabilise Scotland’s brown crab population.

‘Male brown crabs migrate up the east coast of Scotland,’ Lyndon said. ‘If miles of underwater cabling prove too difficult to resist, they’ll stay put.

‘This could mean we have a build-up of male crabs in the south of Scotland, and a paucity of them in the north east and islands, where they are incredibly important for fishermen’s livelihoods and local economies.’

One solution would be to bury the cables in the seafloor, he said, but this can be expensive and make maintenance more challenging. It also cannot be done in some locations.
:
‘We need to investigate further technical solutions so that we don’t create negative environmental effects while trying to decarbonise our energy supply,’ Lyndon added.

The researchers say the revelations are essential for policy making, environmental assessments and in understanding the impacts of electromagnetic field on marine organisms, including the brown crab.

The species is found throughout European waters with their distribution ranging from
Norwegian waters down to the northern coastline of Africa.

The brown crab fishery in British waters is one of the largest crab fisheries in the world, although a large proportion of the catch is exported to France and Spain.

‘Around one-third of the overall weight of the crab is edible as crab meat,’ British Sea
Fishing explains on its website.

‘Despite the importance of this species there is very little known about overall stock numbers or the extent to which current fishing intensity is depleting stocks.’

The new study has been published in the Journal of Marine Science and Engineering.
(https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/9/7/776)
Daily Mail (https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-10078543/Underwater-cables- renewables-magnetic-pull-brown-crabs.html)

(https://stopthesethings.files.wordpress.com/2021/10/crab3.jpg)
Saving the planet, my eye. What next, from so-called ‘green’ energy???

Posted on December 4, 2021November 13, 2021
:
2 thoughts on “Stunned Still: Offshore Wind Farm
Power Cables Leave Crabs Mesmerised
& Motionless”

1. REYHAN SAYS:
April 15, 2022 at 4:27 pm
Thanks. A lot of information.

 Reply
2. JILLMIRRAN SAYS:
December 4, 2021 at 9:29 pm
Reblogged this on Dreaming Freedom.

 Reply
:

Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale
Eubalaena australis
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

© Commonwealth of Australia 2022

Ownership of intellectual property rights

Unless otherwise noted, copyright (and any other intellectual property rights) in this publication is owned by the
Commonwealth of Australia (referred to as the Commonwealth).

Creative Commons licence

All material in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence except content supplied by third parties, logos, and the Commonwealth Coat of Arms.

Inquiries about the licence and any use of this document should be emailed to copyright@dcceew.gov.au.

Cataloguing data

This publication (and any material sourced from it) should be attributed as: DCCEEW 2022, Draft National Recovery
Plan for the Southern Right Whale, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, Canberra.

ISBN XXX-X-XXXXX-XXX-X

This publication is available at https://www.dcceew.gov.au/about/publications

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
GPO Box 3090 Canberra ACT 2601
Telephone 1800 803 772
Web dcceew.gov.au

Disclaimer

The Australian Government acting through the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water has exercised due care and skill in preparing and compiling the information and data in this publication.
Notwithstanding, the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, its employees and advisers disclaim all liability, including liability for negligence and for any loss, damage, injury, expense, or cost incurred by any person as a result of accessing, using, or relying on any of the information or data in this publication to the maximum extent permitted by law.

Acknowledgements

The Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water would like to acknowledge all those who contributed to the development of this Recovery Plan.

Acknowledgement of Country

We acknowledge the Traditional Custodians of Australia and their continuing connection to land and sea, waters, environment, and community. We pay our respects to the Traditional Custodians of the lands we live and work on, their culture, and their Elders past and present.

Image credits

Cover page: Southern Right Whales (Eubalaena australis) along the southern coast of Australia. Photo © Joshua Smith

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
ii
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Contents
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................................1
Acronyms .....................................................................................................................................................................4
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................................5
Status of taxon .................................................................................................................................................. 5
Description, biology, distribution, and habitat ................................................................................... 5
Threats ................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Recovery Plan vision and objectives ....................................................................................................... 7
Long-term vision ..............................................................................................................................7
Interim recovery objectives (2023 - 2033)...........................................................................7
Recovery Plan actions ....................................................................................................................8
Criteria for success and performance of Recovery Plan ................................................................. 9
1 Background and policy context ............................................................................................................. 11
Review of Conservation Management Plan 2011-2021 ................................................ 11
Policy and management context ............................................................................................. 13
1.2.1 Commonwealth legislation and management arrangements ...................... 13
1.2.2 State and territory legislation and management arrangements ................ 15
1.2.3 International conventions and management arrangements ....................... 18
1.3 Governance and coordination of the Recovery Plan ...................................................... 19
Australian Government .............................................................................................................. 19
State and local management agencies .................................................................................. 19
Industry and non-government organisations ................................................................... 19
2 Biological, cultural, and ecological information .............................................................................. 20
Taxonomy ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Cultural and community significance ................................................................................... 20
2.2.1. Cultural significance of whales to Indigenous Australians ........................... 20
2.2.2. Community cultural significance ............................................................................. 21
Historical whaling ......................................................................................................................... 22
Biological information................................................................................................................. 23
2.4.1. Morphology and physical characteristics ............................................................ 23
2.4.2. Demographics and reproduction............................................................................. 25
2.4.3. Mortality and survivorship ........................................................................................ 26
Species bioacoustics ..................................................................................................................... 26
Population structure .................................................................................................................... 27

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
iii
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Abundance and population trends......................................................................................... 27
Distribution and habitat occupancy ...................................................................................... 28
2.8.1 Temporal distribution.................................................................................................. 29
2.8.2 Spatial distribution and re-occupation of historical habitat ........................ 29
2.8.3 Coastal movements ....................................................................................................... 31
Migration, diet, and foraging grounds .................................................................................. 31
Biologically important areas and habitat critical to survival ...................................... 33
2.10.1 Biologically Important Areas .................................................................................... 33
2.10.2 Habitat critical to the survival of the species ..................................................... 34
3 Threats and threat prioritisation .......................................................................................................... 37
Anthropogenic climate change and climate variability ................................................. 37
Entanglement .................................................................................................................................. 38
3.2.1 Active fishing or aquaculture equipment............................................................. 38
3.2.2 Marine debris................................................................................................................... 39
Habitat degradation ..................................................................................................................... 40
3.3.1. Infrastructure/coastal development ..................................................................... 40
3.3.2. Infrastructure/offshore development................................................................... 41
Anthropogenic underwater noise .......................................................................................... 41
3.4.1. Industrial noise ............................................................................................................... 42
3.4.2. Seismic surveys............................................................................................................... 42
3.4.3. Vessel noise ...................................................................................................................... 43
3.4.4. Aircraft noise ................................................................................................................... 44
Collision ............................................................................................................................................. 44
3.5.1 Vessel strike ..................................................................................................................... 44
3.5.2 Whale Watching.............................................................................................................. 45
3.5.3 Recreational vessels...................................................................................................... 46
Whaling ............................................................................................................................................. 47
Prey depletion ................................................................................................................................ 47
3.7.1 Prey depletion from overfishing .............................................................................. 47
3.7.2 Prey depletion from seismic survey ....................................................................... 47
Pollution ............................................................................................................................................ 48
3.8.1 Chronic chemical pollution ........................................................................................ 48
3.8.2 Acute chemical discharge ........................................................................................... 49
3.8.3 Electromagnetic field discharge .............................................................................. 49
Cumulative effects from threats .............................................................................................. 50

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
iv
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Threat Prioritisation .................................................................................................................... 51
Key considerations for environmental impact assessment processes ................... 55
3.11.1 Context of species recovery for environmental impact assessments ...... 55
3.11.2 Guidance for decision makers................................................................................... 55
3.11.3 Southern Right Whale monitoring programs ..................................................... 56
3.11.4 Adaptive management ................................................................................................. 57
3.11.5 Cumulative effects ......................................................................................................... 58
4 Vision, objectives, and targets ................................................................................................................ 59
Long-term recovery vision ........................................................................................................ 59
Interim recovery objectives and targets.............................................................................. 59
5 Recovery Actions ......................................................................................................................................... 61
Recovery actions to be implemented .................................................................................... 61
5.1.1. Assess and address key threats................................................................................ 62
5.1.2. Measure recovery .......................................................................................................... 72
6 Implementation of Recovery Plan ........................................................................................................ 76
Responsible agencies and partners ....................................................................................... 76
Duration and cost of the recovery process ......................................................................... 76
Reporting process and performance of the Recovery Plan ......................................... 78
6.3.1. Data resources and data management .................................................................. 79
References ................................................................................................................................................................ 81

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
v
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Tables
Table 1 Summary of actions and priority ratings linked to interim recovery objectives developed to support the recovery of Southern Right Whales. ............................................................................................8
Table 2 Conservation status of the Southern Right Whale under Australian State legislation ...... 16
Table 3 Risk prioritisation matrix template ........................................................................................................ 52
Table 4 Western Southern Right Whale population residual risk matrix. .............................................. 53
Table 5 Eastern Southern Right Whale population residual risk matrix. ................................................ 54
Table 6 Key mechanisms and indicative costing to carry out some of the priority actions for
Southern Right Whales ................................................................................................................................................. 77
Table 7 Performance measures for the Southern Right Whale Recovery Plan ..................................... 79

Figures
Figure 1 Physical morphology of a Southern Right Whale mother and calf. .......................................... 24
Figure 2 Southern Right Whale callosity features used for photo-identification. ................................ 24
Figure 3 Spatial distribution of the Southern Right Whale in Australian Waters. ............................... 30
Figure 4 Southern Right Whale reproductive Biologically Important Areas and Habitat Critical to the Survival. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 36

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
vi
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Glossary
Term Definition
Action An ‘Action’ is defined broadly in the EPBC Act and includes: a project, a
development, an undertaking, an activity or a series of activities, or an
alteration of any of these things. Actions encompass site preparation
and construction, operation and maintenance, and closure and
completion stages of a project, as well as alterations or modifications to
existing infrastructure.
Adaptive management A systematic process for continually improving management practices
through learning from the outcomes of previous management. It
includes a monitoring, evaluation, reporting and improvement cycle.
Aggregation A distinctly clumped or clustered pattern in the distribution of animals
Biologically Important Area (BIA) A spatially defined area where aggregations of individuals of a species
are known, or likely, to display biologically important behaviour (e.g.,
reproductive, foraging, migration).
Cumulative effects An incremental effect of an action when added to other past, present,
and reasonably foreseeable future actions that results in a greater
combined effect.
Cumulative exposure The combined exposure to one stressor from multiple sources or
pathways.
Cumulative risk The combined risk from exposures to multiple stressors integrated over
a defined relevant period (e.g., hours, a day or season).
Demography The study of the characteristics of populations to assess status and
extinction risk by measuring and quantifying standardized metrics
common to all populations, such as size, density, fecundity, mortality,
sex ratio, and age structure.
Disturbance Significant behavioural changes in response to an activity that can result
in disruption to biologically important behaviours (i.e., reproductive,
foraging, migration, resting) and have potential sub-lethal impacts on
the survival of an animal, which if persists over time may have
individual and population-level impacts.
Effect Change caused by an exposure to an anthropogenic activity that is a
departure from a prior baseline state, condition, or situation.
Habitat Critical to the Survival Areas identified in the Recovery Plan that are necessary to a species: for
activities such as foraging, breeding, roosting, or dispersal; for the long-
term maintenance of the species or ecological community; to maintain
genetic diversity and long-term evolutionary development; for the
reintroduction of populations or recovery of the species or ecological
community.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
1
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Historic high use area Areas where intensive and sustained shore-based whaling effort
occurred (based on years of operation and number of stations)
spanning at least two calving cycles (i.e., 6 years) and southern right
whales occupied the area.
Impact A biologically significant effect that reflects a change whose direction,
magnitude and/or duration is sufficient to have consequences for the
fitness of individuals or populations.
Injury Harm or damage (i.e., acoustic and/or physical) inflicted on the body of
a whale. Evidence of injury could include bleeding, lacerations, loss or
inability to use an appendage. In relation to anthropogenic underwater
noise, injury is both permanent and temporary hearing impairment
(Permanent Threshold Shift and Temporary Threshold Shift), and any
other form of physical harm arising from anthropogenic underwater
noise.
Migration area BIAs where whales are known, or likely, to use that area for movement
between regions that support biologically important behaviour. This
includes the movement from foraging areas to breeding areas and
coastal movement of whales in coastal connecting habitat between
reproductive areas.
Occurrence (of a species) The overall presence of a species in an area.
Offset A measure that compensates for the residual impacts of an action on
the environment, after avoidance and mitigation measures are taken.
Population An occurrence of the species or community in a particular area.
Occurrence includes but is not limited to a geographically distinct
regional population or collection of local populations, or a population or
collection of local populations that occurs within a particular bioregion.
Precautionary principle The precautionary approach is included as one of the principles of
ecologically sustainable development in subsection 3A(a) of the EPBC
Act, as follows: 'if there are threats of serious or irreversible
environmental damage, a lack of full scientific certainty should not be
used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental
degradation'.
Principles of ecologically Defined at section 3A of the EPBC Act.
sustainable development (ESD)
Recovery Plan The purpose of a Recovery Plan is to ensure the protection,
conservation, and management of listed threatened species or
ecological community. A Recovery Plan is developed in accordance with
Part 13 s269A and s270 of the EPBC Act, and it is a legal requirement to
‘not act inconsistently’ with the objectives and specific actions outlined
in the Recovery Plan.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
2
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Recovery Plan actions Specific actions designed to deliver tangible results against Recovery
Plan objectives to minimise anthropogenic threats and allow for the
conservation status of the Southern Right Whale to improve, so that
the species is removed from the EPBC Act threatened species listing.
Reproductive area Biologically Important Areas where mating and/or calving and presence
of neonates are known, or likely, to occur.
Stressor Any physical, chemical, or biotic entity that moves a biological system
out of its normal operating range. The term stressor is synonymous
with the term threat and relates to phenomenon or activities such as
climate change, vessel strike or underwater noise.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
3
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Acronyms
Term Definition
ATCM Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings
BIA Biologically Important Area
CAMMLR Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
CMP Conservation Management Plan
DCCEEW Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
(Commonwealth)
EPBC Act Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth)
ESD Ecologically sustainable development
HCTS Habitat Critical to the Survival
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWC International Whaling Commission
MNES Matters of National Environmental Significance
NSW New South Wales
QLD Queensland
SA South Australia
TAS Tasmania
VIC Victoria
WA Western Australia

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
4
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Executive Summary
Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)
The purpose of this Recovery Plan is to set out the objectives, targets, and management and research actions necessary to minimise anthropogenic threats to facilitate recovery of the
Southern Right Whale and allow their conservation status to improve so they can be removed from the threatened species list under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation
Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The Recovery Plan is developed in accordance with Part 13, Division 5 of the EPBC Act.

Status of taxon
Commonwealth legislation:
 Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth):
Endangered
State legislation:
 Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (New South Wales): Endangered
 Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Victoria): Endangered
 Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (Tasmania): Endangered
 South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (South Australia): Vulnerable
 Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 (Western Australia): Vulnerable
 Nature Conservation Act 1992 (Queensland): Least Concern
Assessment under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:
 International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List 2017: Least Concern

Description, biology, distribution, and habitat
The Southern Right Whale is listed as Endangered under the EPBC Act because population numbers have been severely reduced by historical commercial whaling. The origin of the name
‘right whale’ comes from recognition by whalers that the species was the ‘right’ whale to hunt due to the high oil content of their blubber and because it was easy to catch and process due to its nearshore migratory routes, slow swimming behaviour, and it floated when killed.
Consequently, right whales were hunted to the brink of extinction throughout their range
(Kenney 2018).

Southern Right Whales are large, baleen whales (Order Cetacea, Family Balaenidae), characterised by the lack of a dorsal fin, a distinctly ‘V’ shaped blow, and the presence of cornified skin growths on the head known as callosities (Kenney 2018). Southern Right Whales reach a maximum length of approximately 17 m and a weight of around 80 t, with mature females slightly larger than males and Southern Right Whales slightly smaller than northern hemisphere Right Whales (Jefferson et al. 2015). Contemporary body length data from Head of the Bight suggests Southern Right Whale females (lactating females) range between 13.0 and
14.9 m, with a mean of 14.2 m (Christiansen et al. 2018).

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
5
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Two populations of Southern Right Whale occur in Australian waters: the western and eastern.
The two populations are defined by differences in mitochondrial DNA (Carroll et al. 2011, Carroll et al. 2015, Carroll et al. 2019), geographical ranges, whaling pressures, and varying rates of population increase (Stamation et al. 2020, Smith et al. 2022). Southern Right Whales occur seasonally in all State coastal waters, with sightings ranging from Hervey Bay in Queensland on the east coast, along the entire southern coastline and including Tasmania, to Exmouth Gulf in
Western Australia. The geographical boundary between the Australian populations is unclear.
For management purposes, the western population includes Western Australia and South
Australia waters, whereas the eastern population comprises the coastal waters of Victoria,
Tasmania, New South Wales, and Queensland. Australian Southern Right Whales predominantly occur in aggregations in coastal water reproductive areas where they calve and nurse their young from May to October, primarily occupying shallow waters (< 10m depth) within 1 km of the coastline (Charlton et al. 2019, Smith et al. 2022).

There is evidence of a population increase of the western population where a regular annual census occurs, whereas there is greater uncertainty of the population status and trends of the eastern population. Current Southern Right Whale abundance in Australian waters is still well below estimated historic abundance (< 20 per cent), particularly for the eastern population.
Habitat occupancy is still constrained in comparison to historical occupancy, and knowledge about habitat use in both populations is limited. Recent estimates of the population size in
Australia for the western population is around 3,200 individuals (~5.5 - 6.2 percent increase per annum (p.a.) for mother-calf pairs) and 268 individuals (4.7 percent increase p.a. for mother-calf pairs) for the eastern population (Stamation et al. 2020, Smith et al. 2022).

Threats
The life history traits of Southern Right Whales make them vulnerable to anthropogenic threats.
These traits include a long-life span, low reproductive output, late sexual maturity, and strong fidelity to calving areas. These life history traits mean that any long-term response to disturbance and impacts from threats that may affect recovery are unlikely to be detectable, or even reliably identified to a specific threat, over short timescales (i.e., 1 to 3 years).
Consequently, long-term monitoring is required for effective management and assessment of the recovery of Southern Right Whales.

Threats to Southern Right Whales were assessed through a risk assessment process (see section
3.10) and the highest rated threats (i.e., ‘High’ and ‘Very high’ rating) were identified. These are anthropogenic climate change and climate variability; entanglement in fishing and aquaculture equipment; habitat degradation from coastal and offshore development; anthropogenic underwater noise; vessel collision; whaling (if resumed at any time); and prey depletion from overfishing. The degree and associated level of risk to which these threats may impact Southern
Right Whales varies between the western and eastern population, given their different population sizes, varied rate of recovery, and differing levels of exposure to anthropogenic impacts.

Southern Right Whales are capital breeders, whereby they accumulate and store sufficient energy reserves on the foraging grounds to meet the cost of growth, maintenance, locomotion and reproduction in the breeding grounds (Jönsson 1997). Energy demands are greatest for breeding females due to the expensive cost associated with gestation and lactation, and they

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
6
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) require larger energy stores than males and non-pregnant females. In Australian coastal waters,
Southern Right Whales typically do not feed and energy stores decline. Environmental and anthropogenic stressors may further compound the energetic stress and body condition of the whales. Consequently, it is important to protect biologically important areas in which Southern
Right Whales engage in life critical behaviours (e.g., mating, calving, nursing, foraging, migration) from anthropogenic threats and stressors.

Recovery Plan vision and objectives
Long-term vision
The long-term vision for the recovery of the Australian Southern Right Whale is that the population has increased in size to a level that the conservation status has improved, and the species no longer qualifies for listing as threatened under any of the EPBC Act listing criteria.

Due to intense historical exploitation of Southern Right Whales and the species’ life history characteristics, any population recovery to, or near, pre-exploitation levels is likely to be a long process (i.e., multi-decadal). As a result, achieving this long-term vision for Southern Right
Whales utilising Australian waters is unlikely during the ten-year life of this plan.

Interim recovery objectives (2023 - 2033)
Recognising the multi-decadal period that the recovery of Southern Right Whales is likely to occur across, the following interim recovery objectives have been set for the period covered by the plan.

Interim objective 1: Current levels of Commonwealth and State legislative and management protection for Southern Right Whales are implemented, maintained, or improved so threats continue to be managed and reduced over the life of the plan.

Interim objective 2: Anthropogenic threats are managed consistent with ecologically sustainable development principles and do not impede recovery of Southern Right Whales.

Interim objective 3: The population demographics of the eastern and western Southern Right
Whale populations are monitored using robust methodology to demonstrate that the abundance, areas of occupancy, and habitat use of Southern Right Whales is increasing.

Interim objective 4: The population structure of Southern Right Whales in Australian waters is clearly characterised, including the level of interchange of individuals, to evaluate the degree to which the western and eastern populations are separate populations.

Interim objective 5: Capability of Indigenous Australian, research, citizen science and general community groups is improved to assist in addressing recovery actions of Southern Right
Whales in Australia.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
7
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Recovery Plan actions
The following actions in Table 1 aim to achieve the interim recovery objectives (section Error!
Reference source not found.) within the ten-year life of this Recovery Plan. Key threats to
Southern Right Whales have been identified through the risk analysis in section 3.10 and further detail on the actions designed to address the higher prioritised threats (‘High’ and ‘Very High’) are outlined in section 5. Risk assessments of threats were separately undertaken for the western and eastern populations to account for the different recovery trajectories and that the identified threats may potentially impact the two populations differently.

Table 1 Summary of actions and priority ratings linked to interim recovery objectives developed to support the recovery of Southern Right Whales.

Interim
Action Priority rating
objective
Western Eastern
A: Assess and Address Threats
population population
A.1: Maintain and improve efficacy of current legal 1, 2, 4 Very high Very high
and management protection.
A.2: Address habitat degradation impacts from marine 1, 2, 4 Very high Very high
infrastructure developments: coastal and
offshore development.
A.3: Understand impacts of anthropogenic climate 1, 2, 4, 5 Very high Very high
change and variability on population recovery.
A.4: Reduce entanglements from active or discarded 1, 2, 4 Very high Very high
commercial fishing gear.
A.5: Assess and address impacts from anthropogenic 1, 2, 4 Moderate Very high
noise.
A.6: Manage and mitigate the threat of vessel strike. 1, 2, 4 Moderate Very high
B: Measure Recovery
B.1: Measure and monitor population demographics 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Very high Very high
and recovery.
B.2: Characterise population structure. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Very high Very high
B.3: Determine offshore distribution and migratory 1, 2, 3, 4 High High
paths.
B.4: Improve capability of Indigenous Australian, 3, 4, 5 High High
research, citizen science and general community
groups to assist management of Southern Right
Whales.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
8
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Criteria for success and performance of Recovery Plan
This Recovery Plan will be determined to be successful if by the end of the plan in 2033, the following are achieved:

 The Southern Right Whale population is demonstrated to be recovering via an effective
national monitoring program across its known distribution and a sustained positive
population trend is identified.
 Threats have been demonstrably reduced and effectively mitigated through the
implementation of an adaptive management framework to facilitate species recovery.
 Understanding of the species’ ecology has increased to a level that enables assessment
of risks associated with anthropogenic threats and impacts on the species demographic
parameters to be calculated. This includes an increase in knowledge of migration and
movement patterns, habitat use, foraging grounds, reproductive success, and
identification of habitat critical to the survival of the species (i.e., biologically important
areas).
 National and state legislative protection is maintained and improved and efforts by all
levels of government to improve the status of the Southern Right Whale and its habitat
are sustained.
 There is increased participation by Commonwealth and State government agencies,
Indigenous Australians, key stakeholders and the public in monitoring and reduction of
threats.
 There is an improved understanding of the cultural significance of whales (and
Southern Right Whales) to Indigenous Australians and their aspirations related to
monitoring, conservation, and management of Southern Right Whales.
A five-year statutory interim review of progress in achieving management actions will be undertaken in 2028. The performance of this plan will be assessed at its completion in 2033 and assigned a performance rating (outlined in

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
9
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Table 7, section 6.3) that identifies the degree to which the interim recovery objectives, and specifically the targets, in Section 6.3 have been met. This rating will provide an indication of the degree of progress towards the long-term vision of the Recovery Plan. The Recovery Plan will be determined successful if all nine targets are met and unsuccessful if less than five targets are met or target 1.1 is not met.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
10
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

1 Background and policy context
This document constitutes the National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale, set out in accordance with Part 13, Division 5 of the EPBC Act. The plan considers the historical and current level of knowledge about Southern Right Whale conservation requirements across their range and identifies the research and management actions necessary to support the species recovery to maximise their long-term survival in the wild.

This is the third Recovery Plan for Southern Right Whales and replaces the Conservation
Management Plan for the Southern Right Whale 2011-2021 (CMP) developed in 2013. Since the initial Southern Right Whale Recovery Plan 2005 – 2010, the Southern Right Whale remains listed as Endangered under the EPBC Act, primarily due to intense historical commercial whaling that resulted in a severe reduction in population size, almost to the extent the species was extirpated in Australian waters.

Review of Conservation Management Plan 2011-2021
The Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (former) undertook a review of the
CMP in 2022 with the support of Commonwealth and State government agencies, industry, and scientific experts. The review concluded that the previous plan resulted in progress in two main areas:

 Improved understanding of the coastal distribution and abundance of Southern Right
Whales, particularly for the western population. There is improved understanding of
the abundance of the eastern population, although challenges remain with identifying
the influence that varied survey effort may have on estimating the population.
Continued efforts towards improved understanding of abundance and distribution of
the eastern population through robust monitoring is required, and collection and
analyses of genetic material from individuals are necessary for further finer scale
insights into the delineation of both populations.
 Improved understanding of the offshore distribution and migratory movements,
particularly via satellite tagging and associated identification of potential foraging
areas. Further analyses of stable isotopes (able to be achieved through the utilisation of
the same samples) and investigation of isoscapes (i.e., spatially explicit prediction of
isotopic values across a landscape) in combination with past and current satellite
tagging studies across the Australasian region, will provide further insights into
utilisation of summer foraging areas.
The review identified that despite progress on many recovery actions, all threats and threatening processes identified in the 2011 CMP continue to either directly adversely affect or comprise a risk to the recovery of the species across its range. There is evidence of population increase of the western population, although current Southern Right Whale abundance (both populations) is still well below estimated historic abundance and habitat occupancy is still limited to a portion of their range within well-established calving areas. Specifically, a comprehensive understanding of the population demographics, including the degree of spatial connectivity and population interchange, of Southern Right Whales in Australian waters (and

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
11
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Southern Ocean foraging grounds) limits our understanding of the impacts from threats on the species.

The seasonal spatial distribution of Southern Right Whales in Australian waters is predominantly coastal, and the review highlighted limited understanding of the migratory paths connecting foraging grounds to coastal breeding areas. There is currently a varying degree of overlap between coastal and offshore industrial development activities, with the prospect of this overlap to increase with emerging industries such as offshore renewable energy. In association, and as coastal development expands, there is the potential for habitat degradation of biologically important areas, with greater risk to the eastern population.

The review identified there has been a better understanding of the correlation between climate variability and anthropogenically driven climate change and female reproductive success and recovery on their breeding grounds in regions other than Australia. This new knowledge highlights the need for long-term annual monitoring of population abundance and trend for identifying the contribution of separate potential threats to Southern Right Whale breeding success, particularly within the context of the species non-annual calving rate. The review noted that the CMP objectives which related to threats such as anthropogenic underwater noise and entanglements had not been fully met, and nor had the plan adequately considered the effects of cumulative impacts.

The review recommended future recovery planning should prioritise actions to:
 Increase knowledge of Southern Right Whale distribution, abundance and habitat use
across the species’ distribution range to inform a greater understanding of spatial and
temporal recovery and improved management actions.
 Undertake studies on specific threats that quantify the degree to which the biology of
Southern Right Whales may be impacted and associated risks.
 Mitigate and manage threats to Southern Right Whale populations at locations that are
important for long-term species persistence across their range.
 Improve understanding and mapping of Biologically Important Areas to identify habitat
critical to survival of the species.
 Consider appropriate frameworks that address cumulative impacts.

The review recommended a new Recovery Plan be made that would reflect the current knowledge accumulated during the lifetime of the CMP, prioritise research and management actions needed to monitor population recovery and better predict the risks and associated impacts from threats. The review acknowledged the complexities in ensuring ongoing recovery of Southern Right Whale. Across the distribution of the species within Australian waters, there is a wide range of partners and management capacities, and a range of increasing marine development pressures. As such, a Recovery Plan is necessary to guide planning processes and the research required to improve understanding of the Southern Right Whale population and inform adaptive management and programs.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
12
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Policy and management context
1.2.1 Commonwealth legislation and management arrangements
The following are Commonwealth legislation and management arrangements current at the time of writing this Plan that relate to the protection of Southern Right Whales in Australian waters.
Many of these relate to the EPBC Act, which is Australia’s primary environmental legislation.
Policy statements and guidelines, including new legislation and guidelines, are found on the
EPBC Act policy statements webpage at: https://www.awe.gov.au/environment/epbc/policy- statements.

EPBC Regulations and Australian Whale Sanctuary
The Australian Whale Sanctuary was established under Part 13 of the EPBC Act to provide formal recognition of the high level of protection and management for cetaceans found in
Australian Commonwealth waters. Within the Australian Whale Sanctuary, it is an offence to kill, injure, take, trade, keep, move, or interfere with a cetacean. The Australian Whale Sanctuary encompasses the area of the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) outside state waters and generally extends 200 nautical miles from the coast. It also includes waters around the
Australian Antarctic Territory, and external territories including Christmas, Cocos (Keeling),
Macquarie, Norfolk and Heard and McDonald Islands.

Part 8 of the EPBC Regulations makes provision for the regulation of persons within the
Australian Whale Sanctuary to minimise the impact of activities on cetacean populations within the Sanctuary.
Threatened species Recovery Plans and permits

The Southern Right Whale is a listed threatened (Endangered) and Migratory species under the
EPBC Act and is afforded additional measures of protection as a Cetacean under Part 13 of the
EPBC Act. Current species listings are located on the Species Profile and Threats Database, found at http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/sprat.pl.

It is an offence to kill, injure, take, trade, keep or move listed threatened and migratory species in a Commonwealth area under Part 13 of the EPBC Act, unless the person taking the action holds a permit under the EPBC Act or the activity is carried out in accordance with a state/territory or Commonwealth fishery plan of management accredited by the Commonwealth
Minister responsible for the administration of the EPBC Act. This Recovery Plan was made under
Part 13 s269 of the EPBC Act, and it is a legal requirement to ‘not act inconsistently’ with the objectives and specific actions outlined in the Recovery Plan.

Significant Impact Guidelines on Matters of National Environmental Significance
The EPBC Act Significant Impact Guidelines 1.1 – Matters of National Environmental Significance, provide overarching guidance on determining whether an action is likely to have a significant impact on a listed threatened species. Under Part 3 section 18 of the EPBC Act it is an offence to undertake an action that will have a significant impact on listed threatened species unless approved by the Minister under Part 9.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
13
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Interaction between offshore seismic exploration and whales
The EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1 – Interaction between offshore seismic exploration and whales:
Industry Guidelines provides practical standards to minimise the risk of acoustic injury to whales in vicinity of seismic survey operations. It also provides a framework and practical standards that minimises the risk of biological consequences from acoustic disturbance from seismic survey sources to whales in biologically important areas (e.g., breeding, calving, resting areas or confined migratory routes or feeding areas) or during critical behaviours (e.g., breeding, feeding, and resting).

Marine Bioregional Plans
Marine bioregional plans have been prepared under section 176 of the EPBC Act for the South- west, North-west, North, and Temperate East marine regions in Commonwealth waters around
Australia. Each Marine Bioregional Plan describes the marine environment and conservation values of the region, identifies, and characterises the pressures affecting these conservation values, and identifies regional priorities and outlines strategies to address them. Southern Right
Whales are identified as a regional priority in the Marine bioregional plan for the South-west
Marine Region as part of this process. While not a bioregional plan, the South-east marine region profile also identifies that Southern Right Whales are a protected species known to occur in the region.

World Heritage Areas

Australia's World Heritage Properties are protected under the EPBC Act, which ensures an assessment process for proposed actions of significant impacts on the World Heritage values of a declared world heritage property is undertaken. The Southern Right Whale is a key listed value under Criterion (x) of the Shark Bay World Heritage Area.

Commonwealth Marine Park Management Plans

Under the EPBC Act, the Director of National Parks is responsible for managing Commonwealth marine parks. These marine parks are managed through management plans made under the
EPBC Act to provide for the protection and conservation of biodiversity and other natural, cultural and heritage values of the parks. Management plans allow for management actions including control of activities through zoning prescriptions and authorisations to mitigate potential threats and protect key areas and habitats for Southern Right Whales and other associated marine species. For example, the Marine Mammal Protection Area within the Great
Australian Bight Marine Park provides additional seasonal protection for a globally important calving area for endangered Southern Right Whales by prohibiting use of all vessels between 1
May and 31 October every year.

National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching 2017

The Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching 2017 provide a consistent national set of guiding principles for the management of whale and dolphin watching to ensure animals are not harmed or disturbed.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
14
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

National Strategy for Reducing Vessel Strike on Cetaceans and other Marine Megafauna 2017
The National Strategy for Reducing Vessel Strike on Cetaceans and other Marine Megafauna 2017 provides guidance on understanding and reducing the risk of vessel collisions and the impacts they may have on marine megafauna.

National Guidance on the Management of Whale and Dolphin Incidents in Australian Waters

This document provides a series of ‘best practice’ guiding principles for the management of cetacean incidents, in recognition of the fact that as cetacean populations continue to recover, incidences where cetaceans strand or become entangled are becoming more prevalent. This guidance applies to whales and dolphins in distress (i.e., sick, injured, stranded, or entangled) and addresses various factors involved in managing incidents.

Regulation of offshore energy activities
The National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority (NOPSEMA) is responsible for the assessment and regulation of offshore petroleum and greenhouse gas activities and offshore renewable energy activities in Commonwealth waters under the Offshore
Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act 2006 (OPGGS Act) and OPGGS (Environment)
Regulations 2009 and the Offshore Electricity Infrastructure Act 2021 (OEI Act), respectively.

NOPSEMA applies and complies with EPBC Act environmental protection responsibilities under the environmental management authorisations process endorsed by the Minister for
Environment under section 146 of the EPBC Act (the Program). The OPGGS Regulations require a titleholder to have an accepted environment plan for any petroleum or greenhouse gas activity, which must demonstrate how the activity will not be inconsistent with any threatened species (e.g., Southern Right Whale) Recovery Plan in place and that any impacts are of an acceptable level. Under the OEI Act, NOPSEMA operates as the offshore infrastructure regulator of activities that include the construction, installation, operation, maintenance or decommissioning of offshore renewable energy infrastructure and offshore electricity transmission infrastructure as defined under the OEI Act.

Fisheries Bycatch Policy

The Commonwealth Fisheries Bycatch Policy aims to reduce fishing-related impacts on bycatch species by ensuring the exploitation of fisheries resources is consistent with the principles of ecologically sustainable development. The Bycatch Policy’s central theme of avoiding or minimising bycatch is supported by the Guidelines for the Implementation of the Commonwealth
Fisheries Bycatch Policy.

1.2.2 State and territory legislation and management arrangements
The Error! Reference source not found.relevant legislation by state jurisdiction and c onservation status of Southern Right Whales under each piece of legislation are outlined in Table
2 and specific provisions for each State are provided.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
15
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Table 2 Conservation status of the Southern Right Whale under Australian State legislation

Jurisdiction Legislation Listing status

New South Wales Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 Endangered
Victoria Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 Endangered
Tasmania Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 Endangered
South Australia National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 Vulnerable
Western Australia Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 Vulnerable
Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992 Least Concern

New South Wales

Protection of marine mammals in NSW is legislated under the Biodiversity Conservation Act
2016 (and Regulation 2017). Provisions of the Act and Regulation cover harming animals (s2.1), damaging habitat of threatened species (where habitat is known), dealing in animals and providing regulations for approaching marine mammals (s2.3 to s2.7). The Regulation (under
Part 2, Division 2.1) addresses whale watching and regulations on the ability to interfere, approach, operate vessels and aircraft, feed, and swim with marine mammals, as well as marine mammals in captivity including breeding, and importing (s2.1 to 2.8).

The Act provides a mechanism that may allow for the declaration of an area to be an Area of
Outstanding Biodiversity Value (s3.1 to s3.6), if that area contributes to the persistence of a threatened species, which may act as a form of marine sanctuary if declared. Furthermore, management plans for Marine Parks and Aquatic Reserves created under the Marine Estate
Management Act 2014 may allow for park or issue specific conditions (e.g., sanctuary zones, commercial activities, behaviours) for the use of Marine Parks, which advance the conservation of biological diversity.

Victoria

The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and subsequent Flora and Fauna Guarantee
Amendment Act 2019 update are the primary Victorian legislation providing for conservation of threatened species and ecological communities, and the management of processes that threaten the sustainability Victoria's native flora and fauna.

Regulatory provisions under the Wildlife Act 1975 and Wildlife (Marine mammals) Regulations
2019 are in place to manage interactions (human, vessel, and aircraft) with wildlife in all
Victorian coastal waters. This act and associated regulations can protect Southern Right Whales in Victorian waters through establishment of Whale sanctuary zones and minimum approach distances to whales. An exclusion zone at the known calving ground at Logan’s Beach,
Warrnambool (Logan’s Beach Exclusion Zone), has been established by prohibiting powered vessels in the area at any time from 1 June to 31 October in any year. The Marine and Coastal Act
2018 provides for implementation of a marine spatial planning framework for planning and managing the Victorian marine and coastal environment and development of conditions on approvals for development in the marine environment.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
16
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Tasmania

Threatened species are protected under the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 and National
Parks and Wildlife Act 1970, for which a permit is required to knowingly “take” (which includes kill, injure, catch, damage, destroy and collect), keep, trade in, or process any specimen of a listed species. Whales are also protected in Tasmanian waters under the Whales Protection Act 1988, which regulates human interactions with whales and dolphins.

South Australia

The South Australian Government has declared a whale sanctuary and marine park at the Head of the Great Australian Bight (Head of Bight), which is a significant aggregation and calving area for Southern Right Whales. This declaration permanently excludes activities that are disruptive to habitat and/or have the potential to conflict with the whales and prohibits mining from the
Conservation Zones in state waters.

Under the National Parks and Wildlife Act (Protected Animals) Marine Mammals Regulations
2010, the ‘Encounter Bay Restricted Area’ is a special purpose area and within this declared area you cannot move a vessel closer than 300m to a whale (elsewhere in the state the approach distance is 100m). The purpose of this restricted area is to afford greater protection for
Southern Right Whales with their calves from vessel disturbance in a key nursery area.

Under the Harbors and Navigation Act Regulations 2009, the ‘Victor Harbor Restriction Zone’ prohibits personal watercraft and jet-ski operators from launching or operating their vessel within this zone from May 1 to September 30. The purpose of these restrictions is to minimise disturbance for whales.

Western Australia

The Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2018 provide legislative protection for biodiversity, particularly threatened species and threatened ecological communities in Western Australia. The Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 provides a statutory basis for the listing of threatened native species under section 19(1) of the act. The Biodiversity and Conservation Regulations 2018 outline requirements related to interactions with marine fauna, including minimum separation distances for whales (Schedule 5) and interfering with the natural movement of marine fauna.

Queensland

The Nature Conservation (Whales and Dolphins) Conservation Plan 1997 was repealed in 2013 and regulations to protect whales were introduced under subordinate legislation to the Nature
Conservation Act 1992 (Qld). The Nature Conservation (Animals) Regulation 2020 manages vessel, aircraft, and swimmer approach distances to whales and includes provisions for increasing protection of declared temporary special marine mammals and in marine mammal special management areas.

Under the Commonwealth’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Regulations 2019, there are requirements for whale and dolphin watching that relate to safe approach distances and operations around whales and dolphins, including the Whitsunday Whale Protection Area in the
Whitsunday Planning Area.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
17
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

1.2.3 International conventions and management arrangements
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) - The
Southern Right Whale is afforded a level of protection in international waters through its listing on Appendix I of CITES, which is the ‘Endangered migratory species’ of the Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS, Bonn Convention).

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) - Australia is the host country of the CCAMLR Secretariat and a key member in Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meetings (ATCM). Under CCAMLR, member states work to progress management of fisheries operating within the convention area (e.g., krill fishery), develop marine protected areas and incorporate information on the ecology of marine living resources, including cetaceans, into scientific advice and conservation measures.

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) - In 1931 right whales were the first of the great whales to be granted international protection under a League of Nations convention intended to take effect in 1935, and then protected under the International Whaling
Commission (IWC) from its inception in 1946. Australia was a founding member of the IWC in
1948. All whales are protected from commercial whaling by the convention through the moratorium on commercial whaling introduced by the IWC in 1982 and implemented in 1986.
Whales are also protected in IWC sanctuaries, including the Indian Ocean Sanctuary established in 1979 and the Southern Ocean Sanctuary established in 1994. Australia contributes to the IWC
Conservation and Scientific Committees, the Ship Strike Working Group, and is a research partner of the IWC Southern Ocean Research Partnership (IWC-SORP), and within this partnership contributes to ‘The right sentinel for climate change research theme’.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) – Australia became a party to the United Nations Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals in 1991. The convention promotes co-operation between countries in identifying, understanding, and conserving endangered and threatened migratory species and their habitats.
The Southern Right Whale is provided a degree of international protection through its listing on
Appendix I of the convention. Under the auspices of the CMS, a multi-lateral environment
Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and their Habitats in the Pacific
Islands Region (the Pacific Cetaceans MoU), to which Australia has signed, came into effect in
2006. Through this MoU, 15 states within the Pacific Islands seek to foster cooperation, build capacity, and ensure coordinated region-wide conservation for cetaceans and their habitats through this the Pacific Islands region. It also seeks to safeguard the cultural values cetaceans have for the people of the Pacific Islands.

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UN CBD) – Australia is a party to the convention first developed at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. The objectives of the convention are to conserve biological diversity and promote sustainable development. To meet the international obligations of this treaty the Australian Government undertakes to develop national biodiversity strategies and action plans that enable ecologically sustainable development that are relevant to the Southern Right Whale.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
18
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

1.3 Governance and coordination of the Recovery Plan
Key stakeholders who may be involved in the development, implementation, and review of the
Southern Right Whale Recovery Plan, including organisations likely to be affected by the actions proposed in this plan, are listed below.

Australian Government
Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA)
Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA)
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)
DCCEEW, Australian Antarctic Division (AAD)
DCCEEW, Parks Australia (PA)
DCCEEW, Protected Species and Communities Branch (PSCB)
Department of Defence (DoD)
Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (DISER)
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)
Indigenous Land and Sea Corporation (ILSA)
National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority (NOPSEMA)

State and local management agencies
Local government in coastal regions
State Environment agencies – WA Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, SA
Department for Environment and Water, VIC Department of Environment, Land, Water and
Planning, TAS Department of Natural Resources and Environment, NSW Department of
Planning and Environment, QLD Department of Environment and Science
State Fisheries agencies – WA Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, SA
Department of Primary Industries and Regions, VIC Victorian Fishing Authority, TAS
Department of Natural Resources and Environment, NSW Department of Primary Industries,
QLD Department of Agriculture and Fisheries
State Museums

Industry and non-government organisations
Boating Industry Australia
Commercial fishers and associations
General public
Indigenous land councils and communities
Local citizen science groups
Nature-based marine tourism industry – e.g., Whale-watching industry and associations
Non-government organisations – e.g., World Wildlife Fund, International Fund for Animal
Welfare, Australian Conservation Foundation, Organisation for the Rescue and Research of
Cetaceans in Australia.
Offshore renewable energy industry
Oil and gas exploration and production industry
Recreational fishers and associations
Universities and other research organisations

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
19
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

2 Biological, cultural, and ecological
information
Taxonomy
The Southern Right Whale is one of three extant species of right whales belonging to the genus
Eubalaena. along with the North Atlantic (E. glacialis) and North Pacific (E. japonica) right whale.
Along with the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), they comprise the Family Balaenidae in the suborder Mysticeti (baleen whale) of the Order Cetartiodactyla, which is made up of the two orders Artiodactyla (even toed ungulates) and Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises)
(Jefferson et al. 2015, Kenney 2018). Although there is little morphological differences between right whale species, the Southern Right Whale is widely accepted as a separate Southern
Hemisphere species, distinct from the northern hemisphere right whale species based on genetic analyses (Rosenbaum et al. 2000). The taxonomy of right whales is recognised by the IWC, the
Convention on Migratory Species, the IUCN (Kenney 2018) and the Society for Marine
Mammalogy (Taxonomy 2022).

Cultural and community significance
2.2.1. Cultural significance of whales to Indigenous Australians
The cultural, customary, and spiritual significance of species and the ecological communities they form are diverse and varied for Indigenous Australians and their stewardship of Country.
This section describes some examples of this significance, although is not intended to be comprehensive, applicable to, or speak for, all Indigenous Australians. It is acknowledged that
Indigenous Australians who are the custodians of this knowledge have the rights to decide how it is shared and used.

Indigenous Australians have a culture that relates to a connectedness of land and sea in a holistic way and ‘Sea Country’, as on land, contains evidence of the ancient events by which all geographic features, animals, plants and people were created (Smyth 1994). First nation’s people around Australia have long had a strong connection to whales, which has significance as totemic ancestors to some groups. The arrival of whales along Australia's coastline marked the arrival of the "elders of the sea", which follows a songline or ancient memory code, that traces the journeys of ancestral spirits as they created the land, animals, and lore.

As an example, in South Australia the Ngarrindjeri people of the Fleurieu Peninsula and Lakes region have a strong relationship with the Kondoli (Whale) as a powerful Ngatji (totem), which was of the same flesh and closer than the bond between husband and wife. According to
Ngarrindjeri creation stories, Kondoli was a large and strong man who had the ability to make fire; jealous men speared him in the back of his neck and flames leaped out. Kondoli fled to the nearby water to quench his burning wound and became the whale. His wound can still be seen in the spout from the whale’s blowhole (Paterson & Wilson 2019).

At the Great Australian Bight in South Australia, the Mirning people are whale people and the white whale Jeedara is their totem and part of the Dreaming, which tells how the Mirning and

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
20
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Southern Right Whales are connected (Burgoyne 2000). Mirning Country is the sacred place of the Mirning People, and the Yinyila Nation of Mirning clans forms a huge yerrambai, or rainbow arch, spanning the length of the coastal area of the Great Australian Bight from Point Culver in
Western Australia to near Streaky Bay in South Australia (Burgoyne 2000). The Far West Coast
Aboriginal Corporation (FWCAC) manages the Far West Coast land, which belongs to the Far
West Coast Aboriginal Peoples. FWCAC represents six distinct cultural groups of Aboriginal people: Mirning Peoples, The descendants of Edward Roberts, Wirangu Peoples, Yalata Peoples,
Kokatha Peoples and Maralinga Tjaratja (Oak Valley) Peoples.

In Victoria, Koontapool (Southern Right Whales) occur along the coastlines of south-west
Victoria in Gunditjmara Sea Country to feed and birth. These Koontapool Woorrkngan Yakeen
(Whale Birthing Dreaming Sites), are in coastal bay areas from Port Campbell to Portland, including Warrnambool. These places on Gunditjmara Country are known resting and feeding sites for mothers and calves and are directly related to Gunditjmara Neeyn (midwives), explaining why Gunditjmara is a Matrilineal Nation.

Indigenous Australians have a long tradition of utilising beached (or stranded) whales as a food source and whale stranding’s were occasions for feasting (Clarke 2001). For example,
Ngarrindjeri had gathered to harvest the bodies of stranded whales well before Kringkari (pink- skinned men) arrived in their lands. Runners were sent inland telling others of the arrival of
Kondoli, which was a time for ceremony and trade (Paterson & Wilson 2019).

2.2.2. Community cultural significance
Historically, cetaceans were culturally and economically important to Australia for what they could provide: oil, whalebone, teeth, and meat. Whaling became an important industry in
Australia in the early 19th century following European colonisation, with whale products a major export and contributor to the Australian economy (Gill 1966). In the 20th century, whaling was considered good for international connections and relations, and many Australian ports provided berths to international vessels, such as Norwegian, Russian and Japanese ships in both
Fremantle Harbour and Sydney Harbour (Kato 2015). During the mid-20th century, shore-based whaling operated around Australia with major stations in Albany (WA), Byron Bay (NSW), Eden
(NSW) and Tangalooma (QLD), for which the industry was seen to bring modernisation, employment, and new amenities to many parts of Australia. With the end of whaling in Australia in 1978, whaling stopped being an economic issue and became an environmental one, and
Australia made a rapid transition to an anti-whaling nation (Suter 1982, Kato 2015). From the
1970’s some nations passed laws protecting whales and dolphins (e.g., United States Marine
Mammal Protection Act in 1972 and United Kingdom Wildlife and Countryside Act in 1981).
Australia established the EPBC Act in 1999 in recognition of the extreme exploitation many species underwent and their consequential threatened conservation status, the significant roles cetaceans play in ecosystems, their cognitive abilities, and the complex social societies in which they live (Allen 2014).

Many people today value whales in their own right and as unique living resources that play an important role in their aquatic ecosystems. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) investigated the economic benefits whales provide to industries such as ecotourism, as well as the environmental benefits they may have as ecosystem engineers through carbon sequestration.
The IMF found one great whale is potentially worth approximately $2 million, and the global great whale population approximately $1 trillion (Chami et al. 2019). For most Australians, the

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
21
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) value placed on whales is reflected in economic terms through development of ecotourism associated with whale watching. Commercial sustainable whale watching operators form an important nature-based industry that attracts a large number of tourists to coastal towns, providing important income to coastal regions in Australia, as well as promoting the conservation of whales and dolphins (O’Connor et al. 2009).

Historical whaling
Right whales were a primary target of whalers globally from the mid-16th century to late 20th century (Reeves & Smith 2003). Southern Right Whale were targeted for commercial hunting between 1790 and 1970, with at least 150,000 killed globally (Jackson et al. 2008). It was estimated that prior to whaling there were approximately 120,000 whales in the Southern
Hemisphere breeding grounds, although by 1920 there may have been as few as 300 whales remaining (IWC 2001). Despite international agreement in 1935 to protect Southern Right
Whales, the Soviet Union illegally hunted them in the 1950s and 1960s. The Soviet Union are believed to have illegally taken at least 3,300 Southern Right Whales in the Southern
Hemisphere at this time, removing more than half of whales existing at the time of protection
(Tormosov et al. 1998).

In Australia, whaling became an important industry in the early 19th century following European colonisation, with the earliest reports of whaling right whales in 1805 by shore-based whalers in the Derwent Estuary near Hobart (Dakin 1934). The whaling industry in Australia effectively originated in Tasmania, with shore whaling companies from Sydney and Hobart expanding along the eastern Australian coasts, including Victoria, Tasmania and across to New Zealand (Nash
2003, Gibbs 2010). While the shore–based whaling industry operated in Western Australia in the 19th century, it was established later in the 1830’s and was not as successful or profitable compared to the eastern parts of the country (Gibbs 2010, Gibbs 2012). Three main types of whaling occurred; ‘shore-based’, ‘bay’ and ‘pelagic’ whaling (Dawbin 1986, Carroll et al. 2014).
Bay whaling occurred from 1805 to approximately 1845, and had effectively ceased in
Australian waters by 1850 (Dakin 1934, Gill 1966), with the last shore-based Western Australian right whale catch recorded in 1866 when an estimated seven animals were taken (Bannister
1986). It is estimated 53,000 - 58,000 Southern Right Whale were killed in eastern Australia and
New Zealand over the 19th and 20th centuries, with most caught between 1830 and 1849 during coastal whaling (Dawbin 1986, Carroll et al. 2014). Following the decline in Southern Right
Whale numbers in the 1840’s, pelagic whaling became a more prominent and lucrative form of whaling from the 1860’s that largely focused on sperm whales. Pelagic whaling operated until the end of the 19th century, and while there was some pelagic whaling of Southern Right Whales their catches in the last three decades were almost exclusively sperm whales (Dawbin 1986).

Prior to whaling, wintering aggregations of Southern Right Whales, particularly cows with calves, were reported across the southern coast of Australia (IWC 2001). Following overexploitation by commercial whaling, Southern Right Whales were thought to be almost extinct in the first half of the 20th century based on a scarcity of reports (Bannister 1986). Shore- based whaling inherently targeted females and calves and both shore- and ship-based whaling was heavily concentrated in southeast Australia and New Zealand (Carroll et al. 2011, Carroll et al. 2015, Harcourt et al. 2019). It is likely that the substantive whaling pressure that occurred off south-east Australia resulted in local extirpation of breeding females and a consequent loss of
‘cultural memory’ of calving areas, which may explain the slow rate of recovery in the Australian

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
22
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) south-east region (Carroll et al. 2015). Southern Right Whales were only rediscovered in
Australia in 1955, with anecdotal reports of a small number of whales occurring up until 1970
(Chittleborough 1956, Bannister 1986) followed by increases in numbers from the 1980’s. The intense over-exploitation of right whales has shaped their current population structure, demographic parameters, and rates of recovery in the two different populations across their range (Harcourt et al. 2019).

Biological information
2.4.1. Morphology and physical characteristics
Southern Right Whales are large baleen whales of rotund body shape and are recognised by the lack of a dorsal fin, broad and short pectoral fins and distinct skin growth on their heads and lower jaw called callosities (Figure 1). They use baleen plates made of keratin (a protein) as a sieve to filter water through to feed on their prey. Southern Right Whales reach a maximum length of approximately 17 m, with contemporary body length data from Head of the Bight suggesting Southern Right Whale females (lactating females) range between 13.0 and 14.9 m, with a mean of 14.2 m (Christiansen et al. 2018). Mature females are slightly larger than males and Southern Right Whales slightly smaller than Northern Hemisphere Right Whales (Tormosov et al. 1998, Jefferson et al. 2015). With a weight of around 80 tonne, they are heavier than other baleen whales of a similar length and their bulky body form is markedly different from the more streamlined balaenopterid whales (Jefferson et al. 2015).

Southern Right Whale callosities are patches of keratinised skin colonised by cyamids (i.e., small crustaceans), that provide unique markings on the dorsal surface of the rostrum, the lip line of the lower jaw, and just posterior to the blowhole that are present from birth and persist throughout their life (Payne et al. 1983). Given their uniqueness and persistence, callosity patches (Figure 2) form the basis of long-term identification and monitoring of individuals using methods such as photo-identification. This ability to identify individuals allows for estimation of life history parameters (e.g., conception rates, calving intervals, age of sexual maturity, survival, and mortality), assessment of movement patterns, residency and site fidelity, and investigation into correlations between environmental and climatological variations on reproductive rates and trends in abundance.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
23
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Figure 1 Physical morphology of a Southern Right Whale mother and calf.
© Joshua Smith

Bonnet

Lip patch
Rostral island

Coaming

Post blow hole island

Figure 2 Southern Right Whale callosity features used for photo-identification.
© Fredrik Christiansen, Aarhus University.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
24
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

2.4.2. Demographics and reproduction
Gestation in Southern Right Whales is thought to be approximately 11 - 12 months (Burnell
2001), lactation lasts at least 7 – 8 months (Tormosov et al. 1998), with weaning occurring within 12 months (Lockyer 1984). The apparent age at first parturition is reported to occur at a minimum of five years and average of nine years in whales utilising the Head of the Bight
(Charlton et al. 2022). Southern Right Whales from the Australian population are known to still be reproductively viable to at least 41 years of age and the oldest recorded whale in Australia is estimated to be at least 50 years old (Charlton et al. 2022). Surface active mating and socialising groups observed in reproductive areas are believed to be involved in mating (Burnell et al. 1990,
Parks et al. 2007, Charlton 2017), with adults not accompanied by a calf making up approximately 20% of overall sightings at major calving grounds (Charlton et al. 2019).
However, mating and conception does not exclusively occur in reproductive areas during winter, yet there is limited understanding on the extent it occurs outside aggregation areas. Known females are rarely observed on the Australian coastline in the year prior to calving, suggesting conception may predominantly occur away from calving grounds, potentially on the feeding grounds (Watson et al. 2021). It is difficult to determine the sex of whales at sea which provides challenges to identifying mating behaviour. Whales in close association with a calf over extended periods (weeks) are typically identified as females, and sex can be determined by photographing the ventral ano-genital configuration. Mating behaviour typically involves a single female being pursued by several males over several hours to several days and males may jostle for position and attempt to mate from an inverted position underneath the female (Donnelly 1967, Burnell et al. 1990).

Southern Right Whales are capital breeders, and the female reproductive cycle is closely linked to their migratory cycle. They build up energy stores on high latitude feeding grounds, which are then relied upon while on their breeding/calving grounds to enable lactation during a time that they do not feed (Lockyer 2007). Given finite energy stores on the calving grounds, and the energetic costs of reproduction to females, environmental influences and/or disturbance from anthropogenic activities may impose further demands on the whale’s limited energy stores and affect the body condition of lactating females and the reproductive viability of offspring. There is a significant energetic cost to the mother in the late stages of gestation (i.e. last trimester), and calf growth rate has been observed at the Head of the Bight and found to be dependent on the maternal body size and condition of the mother (Christiansen et al. 2018, Christiansen et al.
2022). The proportion and duration of time calves spend nursing increases with increased calf size throughout the breeding season, and lactating females can lose up to 25 percent of their initial body volume (Christiansen et al. 2018, Nielsen et al. 2019). Behavioural disturbance from human activities can also incur energetic costs to Southern Right Whales, associated with changes more energetically expensive behaviours. For example, Southern Right Whales off the coast of Argentina were found to decrease their proportion of time spent resting and increase the proportion of time spent travelling in the presence of swim with interactions, with mothers and calves being most sensitive to the presence of swimmers (Lundquist et al. 2013).

Southern Right Whales have a single calf on average every three years, with a maximum of up to five-year intervals. Post-partum ovulation does not typically occur in right whales and no published record exists of a female right whale giving birth in consecutive years. Calving intervals shorter than three years are considered rare but have been recorded in instances where a mother loses a calf, and calving intervals observed to be greater than five years are not

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
25
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) considered likely but rather a consequence of missed intervening calving’s (Bannister 1990,
Cooke et al. 2001, Brandão et al. 2011, Charlton et al. 2022). Based on the predominant 3-year calving cycle, females form breeding cohorts, in which it is assumed that the year following calving is a rest year followed then by a mating year (Burnell 2001, Cooke et al. 2001, Brandão et al. 2018). This assumption is supported by observations that identify that reproductively mature females that calve in Australian waters are almost never recorded on the Australian coast between calving years (Bannister 1990, Burnell & Bryden 1997). At the Head of the Bight, the mean calving interval for breeding females during 2015-2021 has been observed to increase from three to four years (Charlton et al. 2022). The factors associated with this increase are unknown, but may have been influenced by climate factors (Charlton et al. 2022).

2.4.3. Mortality and survivorship
Reliable estimates of mortality rates are unknown for Australian Southern Right Whales, although is presumed low given their life history traits, lack of reporting of deceased whales, and increase in long-term population trend. Southern Right Whales have few natural predators, although calves, and possibly adults, may be vulnerable to shark and orca (Orcinus orca) predation, particularly during migration and in high latitudes (Bannister et al. 1996). Bite marks and scars consistent with shark attack have been photographed on animals in Australian waters from all population classes (e.g., males, non-calving females, juveniles, sub-adults). In adults, these appear confined to the flukes and are unlikely to cause death in healthy, mature individuals (Burnell 1999), whereas direct attacks on a sub-adult and an entangled adult whale have been observed. Adult Southern Right Whales rarely strand, but small numbers of calves are found regularly dead or stranded near calving grounds. Neonatal mortality at the Head of Bight has been estimated to be at least 3 percent during the first three months of life (Burnell 1999).

Species bioacoustics
All species of right whales are known to produce a range of low frequency vocalisations, with most concentrated at energies below 1 kHz. They produce vocalisations with a fundamental frequency range of 50 to 500 Hz, modelled hearing range between 10 Hz to 22 kHz (functional range of 15 Hz to 18 kHz), and source levels ranging from 132 to 192 decibels (Parks & Tyack
2005, Parks et al. 2007). Vocalisations have been categorised in various ways, although can be grouped into tonal (including the upcall, downcall and constant call) and broadband pulsive
(including hybrid) vocalisations (Clark 1982, Webster et al. 2016, Ward 2020). The vocalisation types and call rate produced by individual whales can be highly variable, depending on individual or group behaviour and age/sex composition of groups (Clark 1982, Parks et al.
2011).

The first characterisation of Southern Right Whale vocalisations in Australia was undertaken in established aggregation areas at Point Ann (WA) and Fowlers Bay (SA), which found low detection call rates (Ward 2020). The most well documented vocalisation is the upcall, which is a simple, short duration (0.5 to 1.5 s), low frequency (50 to 300 Hz) tonal sound that increases in frequency toward the end of the sound. The upcall is considered the primary contact call used by both males and females of all age classes of right whale that may relate to the individual identity of a whale (Clark 1982, McCordic et al. 2016), and constituted ~76 percent of all vocalisations in the Australian WA and SA aggregation areas (Ward 2020). Consequently, given it is the most

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
26
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) dominant vocalisation type it is predominantly used in passive acoustic monitoring to detect the presence of right whales (Van Parijs et al. 2009, Parks et al. 2011).

Lactating females with calves on calving grounds in both the North Atlantic and Australia have been found observed to produce vocalisations at low amplitude, and relatively infrequently, potentially as a strategy to decrease the risk of acoustically alerting predators of their presence
(Nielsen et al. 2019, Parks et al. 2019, Zeh et al. 2022). North Atlantic right whales have been reported to increase the amplitude of their upcall in response to increasing background noise levels (Parks et al. 2010), and there is also evidence that ship noise can increase stress in right whales (Rolland et al. 2012). To date, similar studies on the responses of Southern Right Whales to increasing background noise or to noise produced by ships has not been undertaken in
Australia, although similar behavioural responses by Southern Right Whales would be plausible.

Population structure
Southern Right Whales that occur seasonally off the Australian coast are identified as derived from two populations: the western and eastern populations. This delineation of populations is based on genetic differentiation (Carroll et al. 2011, Carroll et al. 2015) and varying rates of population increase (Stamation et al. 2020, Watson et al. 2021, Smith et al. 2022), resulting in differing recovery trajectories likely as a result of differences in historical whaling pressure as discussed in section 2.3. The western population occurs off Western Australia and South
Australia, predominantly between Cape Leeuwin and Ceduna, while the eastern population occurs off coastal waters of Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales, and Queensland. The two populations are proposed as two distinct management units (Brownell et al. 1986, Carroll et al.
2015), whereby recruitment from within the management unit is more important to its maintenance than immigration from neighbouring populations (Carroll et al. 2015).

Delineation of distinct western and eastern Australian populations was initially made on the basis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA; female inherited) haplotype frequencies (Carroll et al.
2011). This was supported by further analyses of mtDNA using an increased sample size that identified genetic differentiation between the Australian western and eastern populations and individuals from New Zealand calving grounds. These findings are consistent with long-term fidelity to calving areas (Carroll et al. 2015). In contrast, no genetic differentiation has been observed between the western and eastern population management units using microsatellite
DNA, and between individuals sampled from the Australian calving grounds and migratory corridors based on either mtDNA haplotype or microsatellite allele frequencies (Carroll et al.
2015). This indicates whales from the calving areas across Australia are mixing on shared migratory corridors, and is consistent with the ‘counter-clockwise’ migration hypothesis (first inferred from historical whaling records) of movement of whales in an east to west direction along the southern Australian coast (Dawbin 1986).

Abundance and population trends
The western and eastern populations of Southern Right Whales in Australia demonstrate varying patterns of recovery, following severe exploitation from commercial whaling. The western population has been monitored annually at varying extents of its range since 1976, which represents the longest continuous record of Southern Right Whale abundance in Australia and is central to understanding of the recovery of the species post-exploitation. Annual aerial

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
27
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) surveys were initially conducted in WA between Cape Leeuwin and Israelite Bay, which were extended further east to Twilight Cove from 1985, and then further east again to Ceduna in SA in
1993 (Bannister 1990, Bannister 2001, Evans et al. 2021, Smith et al. 2022). Land-based clifftop surveys have been conducted at the Head of Bight since 1991 (Burnell 2001, Charlton et al.
2022). Monitoring in the south-eastern parts of Australia have largely been opportunistic in nature, with the exception of an aerial survey conducted twice between Ceduna and Sydney
(including Tasmania) in 2013 and 2014 (Watson et al. 2015). Long-term monitoring of
Australian Southern Right Whales has thus focussed on the largest remnant part of the population, which have estimated inter-annual trends in relative abundance and rates of population increase and studied elements of reproductive biology and behaviour.

The maximum biological rate of increase for Southern Right Whales across their range is estimated at approximately 6 - 7 percent per year (IWC 2013). The formation of breeding cohorts (see section 2.4.2) results in inter-annual variation in population counts of Southern
Right Whales observed in Australian waters and consequently, estimation of overall abundance and trends need to be calculated over multi-year periods (i.e., a 3-year rolling average). The most recent population size estimate for the western population derived from the annual aerial survey is estimated at 2,549 whales (1993 – 2021), with a per annum rate of increase of ~4.3 percent (C.I. 2.8 – 5.8) for all animals observed and ~5.4 percent (C.I. 3.6 - 7.2 percent) for mother and calf pairs observed (Smith et al. 2022). However, low whale counts in a given year can influence subsequent population estimates and the 2017 estimates of ~3,200 whales and rate of increase p.a. of 5.5 percent (C.I. 4.0 - 7.3 percent) for all animals and 6.2 percent (C.I. 3.9 -
8.6 percent) for mother-calf pairs are likely a better representation of the status (Smith et al.
2022). The western population is therefore recovering near to the maximum rate of population growth biologically possible. The whales that utilise the Head of the Bight potentially represent
21% of the western population, with an estimated mean rate of increase of 3.2 percent (± 1.3 percent) per annum and 4.6 percent (± 1.7 percent) per annum for females with a calf (Charlton et al. 2022). Although recently (from 2007), the long-term population abundance data have shown greater inter-annual variation and anomalous years of pronounced low whale numbers are potentially becoming more frequent (Evans et al. 2021, Charlton et al. 2022, Smith et al.
2022).

Based on breeding females sighted across the period 1996 to 2017 prior to the post-breeding southward migration (i.e. month of September), an estimate of population size for the eastern population resulted in 268 whales (1996 - 2017) and a rate of increase of 4.7 percent (C.I. 2.3 –
7.3 percent) (Stamation et al. 2020). Contrary to the increase estimated for the population, there is no evidence of an increase in annual numbers of mother-calf pairs at Logan’s Beach, the only established calving aggregation in the south-east of Australia (Stamation et al. 2020). Based on these estimates, the eastern population appears to be recovering at a slower rate than the western population, and abundance remains very low in comparison with expectations based on historical evidence of occupation (Pirzl 2008, Stamation et al. 2020).

Distribution and habitat occupancy
Southern Right Whales have a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Hemisphere between approximately latitudes 20°S and 65°S (Kenney 2018). Reproductive areas where females calve and nurse their young appear to be exclusively coastal, occurring either off continental landmasses or off oceanic islands, and occupied during late autumn, winter, and early spring.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
28
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Foraging and feeding occurs in a similarly broad latitudinal range between at least 30°S and
65°S, particularly in offshore areas associated with large-scale features such as the Sub-Tropical and Polar Fronts (Torres et al. 2013, Carman et al. 2019).

Breeding aggregations of Southern Right Whales occur over a wide environmental range across the entire southern Australian coast, although preferred habitat generally includes shallow sloping sandy bottom bays that provide protection from prevailing wind and weather (Elwen &
Best 2004, Pirzl 2008). Fine-scale habitat selection by Southern Right Whales appears to be influenced by breeding status, with breeding females being more selective than non-calving whales and preferring sheltered, nearshore waters during the early life-stages of their calves
(Pirzl 2008, Rayment et al. 2015). At the Head of Bight, whales show preference to < 10m depth and 1km from shore, with some geographic separation of population classes. Females accompanied by a calf favour the shallow embayment and unaccompanied adults favour the deeper water. Females accompanied by a calf demonstrate seasonal variation in distribution, by expanding their range throughout the season and moving from the sheltered embayment to deeper waters (Burnell 2001, Charlton et al. 2019).

2.8.1 Temporal distribution
Australian Southern Right Whales predominantly occupy the coastal and breeding aggregation areas where they calve and nurse their young from May to October, although may occur as early as April and as late as November on the Australian coast. The peak period of abundance is typically in late July and August, although there is within season variability that differs between females with calves and unaccompanied whales. Females accompanied by a calf generally occupy the calving ground for 2 to 3 months between June and September, whereas unaccompanied whales (males and females without a calf) are more variable in their occupancy of coastal areas (Burnell & Bryden 1997, Charlton et al. 2019).

2.8.2 Spatial distribution and re-occupation of historical habitat
In Australian coastal waters, the Southern Right Whale distribution range (i.e., species range) represents the area the whales can occur in Australian waters between April and November. The species distribution range extends north to Hervey Bay in Qld. (23°S, 150°E) on the east coast and Exmouth/Ningaloo Reef in WA (21°S, 114°E) (Bannister 1986, Smith et al. 2022). Within the distribution range there is a core use area the whales occupy in greater density each year that extends from coastal waters off southern Tasmania in the south, to Sydney (33°S) and Perth
(32°S) on the east and west Australian coast, respectively (Bannister 1986). There has been expansion and re-occupation into historic breeding areas as the population has increased in abundance, with whales now utilising areas such as Geographe Bay, Fowlers Bay and Encounter
Bay (Charlton et al. 2019, Kemper et al. 2022, Salgado Kent et al. 2022). Unpublished sightings data in NSW indicate an increasing use of areas up the NSW coast by Southern Right Whales
(particularly mothers and calf pairs) which may have been historically used areas lost from the cultural memory of Southern Right Whale following early whaling (pers. Comm. A Marshall).
Since 2006, there has been increasing numbers of sightings of Southern Right Whales occurring in the whale’s northern range limits, with the most northerly sighting of a Southern Right Whale
(mother and calf) near Hinchinbrook Island (18°S) in Qld (Smith et al. 2022).

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
29
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Figure 3 Spatial distribution of the Southern Right Whale in Australian Waters.

Female Southern Right Whales show strong site fidelity to certain areas for breeding (mating, calving, nursing), generally returning to the same location to give birth and nurse offspring.
Females are believed to transmit preferences for both winter calving/breeding areas and summer foraging areas to their calves during the first year of the calf’s life (Valenzuela et al.
2009, Carroll et al. 2015, Carroll et al. 2016). Consequently, the loss of significant numbers of individuals from a breeding area may result in loss of the collective memory (i.e., cultural memory) of good breeding areas (Carroll et al. 2015, Harcourt et al. 2019). This may then result in suitable habitat not being utilised or recolonised, particularly if there is no immigration from nearby populations, which could be the case for historically used sites in the eastern population not presently occupied to the same level they were historically before whaling. However, while strong site fidelity occurs within and between years and over decadal time spans (Bannister

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
30
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

2001, Charlton 2017), a small proportion of breeding females have been observed to change the location at which they calve (Watson et al. 2021).

Historic high use areas are where intensive shore-based whaling effort occurred (based on years of operation and number of stations) and Southern Right Whales also occupied the area (Pirzl
2008), with evidence of current use (). However, it should be noted that shore-based whaling records may potentially have been incomplete, and determination of historic high use areas underestimated. Of the four high historic use areas, Southern Right Whales are consistently observed in two of these areas; in southeast South Australia and south-west Victoria. In the two other high historic use areas off the southeast coast of Tasmania and near Eden on the border between Victoria and New South Wales they are less consistently observed. While there is no current published evidence for consistent re-occupation of areas by the eastern population other than some bays in south-west Victoria, there are increasingly regular records of short-term use by mother-calf pairs along the Victorian, Tasmanian and southern NSW coastline from May to
September. In these areas, small but growing numbers of calving and non-calving whales have been observed to regularly aggregate for short periods (days to weeks). These include coastal waters between Binalong Bay to South-east Cape in Tasmania, the Gippsland coast in Victoria
(Stamation et al. 2020), and in numerous protected bays generally south of the NSW Central
Coast, potentially extending north as far as Port Macquarie (A. Marshall pers comm)

2.8.3 Coastal movements
Movements of each population of Southern Right Whales along the Australian coast occur within and between years in areas referred to as coastal connecting habitat, with a high degree of movement having been observed in the western population (Burnell & Bryden 1997, Charlton
2017, Evans et al. 2021, Watson et al. 2021). Movement and interchange between the eastern and western population has also been documented (Burnell 2001, Pirzl et al. 2009, Charlton
2017), with varying percentages of whale sighted in the south-eastern Australian region also sighted in the south-western Australian region and vice versa, depending on the datasets used
(Evans et al. 2021, Watson et al. 2021). These movements demonstrate the importance of coastal connecting habitat for Southern Right Whales. The longest within season movement of ~1,600 km has been recorded between Cape Nelson (VIC) and Head of Bight (SA), whereas the longest between season movement of ~3,800 km was recorded between Sydney (NSW) and Israelite
Bay (WA) (Watson et al. 2021). Furthermore, despite strong natal philopatry to calving areas, the first long-term re-location of a female to a different calving ground has been documented from Logans Beach in south-east Australia to Head of Bight in South Australia (Watson et al.
2021). This is consistent with the findings of Carroll et al. (2015) that mixing of whales from genetically distinct populations occurs along migratory corridors.

Migration, diet, and foraging grounds
Southern Right Whales demonstrate strong fidelity to feeding and breeding areas and are a highly mobile migratory species that can travel thousands of kms between habitats used for these essential life functions (Kenney 2018). The foraging ecology of Southern Right Whales is poorly understood, and observations of feeding whales are rare. Feeding whales have been observed in the region of the Subtropical Front (41 – 44°S) in January and December and catches of whales from this region have recorded predominantly copepods in their stomach, while those caught at higher latitudes (south of 50°S) have been observed to have mainly krill (Townsend

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
31
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

1935, Bannister et al. 1997, Tormosov et al. 1998). Feeding has not been observed in coastal
Australian waters, although other parts of the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) may be utilised for feeding (Torres et al. 2013).

A counter-clockwise migration between foraging and breeding areas has been proposed, whereby whales from the south-western population travel north to south-eastern Australian waters before traveling west to their calving grounds (Burnell 2001). Current knowledge of summer feeding grounds is based on historical whaling data (Townsend 1935, Smith et al.
2012), habitat suitability models (Torres et al. 2013), recaptures of commercial whaling
Discovery tags (Tormosov et al. 1998), photo-identification of individuals (Bannister et al. 1997,
Bannister et al. 1999), and satellite tagging data (Childerhouse 2010, Mackay et al. 2020,
Riekkola et al. 2021). Based on these datasets, Australian Southern Right Whales most likely forage south of Australia in the region of 30°S and 65°S within three likely foraging grounds; south-west of WA, waters associated with the Subtropical Front, and Antarctic waters
(Childerhouse 2010, Mackay et al. 2020, Riekkola et al. 2021). Preliminary findings from stable isotope analyses suggest remarkable consistency in the distribution of Southern Right Whales in mid latitude (<40°S) foraging areas across the past two centuries. Foraging in high latitudes
(>60°S), however, appear to have undergone recent changes in the past two decades. While there has been an estimated 19% decline in the foraging surface area extending to 60°S for the
Australian western population, there has been an increase of 25% for the eastern population to high latitude foraging areas (Derville et al., 2023). Satellite tagging studies indicate variability in migratory pathways undertaken by populations of Southern Right Whales utilising Australian and N.Z. waters. Southern Right Whales tagged at Auckland Islands of New Zealand demonstrated consistent westward migratory movements to offshore waters south of the Head of the Bight and WA (Riekkola et al. 2021).

A strong correlation between environmental conditions (e.g., sea surface temperature anomalies) at right whale high latitude feeding grounds and female reproductive success and calving rates and recovery on their winter breeding grounds has been observed (Leaper et al.
2006, Meyer-Gutbrod et al. 2015, Seyboth et al. 2016). Similar effects have been demonstrated for the Australian population by Pirzl et al. (2008), where annual calf production has been linked to variability in the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), with reduced reproductive output associated with El Niño conditions on a 2.5 to 3-year time lag. The fluctuation of prey abundance on summer high latitude foraging areas has been linked with climate cycles and ocean warming resulting from anthropogenic climate change (Pirzl et al. 2008, Dedden & Rogers 2022), with low prey abundance having a negative impact on reproductive success and calving rates of
Southern Right Whales. It is speculated that variation in calving rate may be influenced by climate factors impacting changes to calving intervals (Pirzl et al. 2009), which could become evident through pronounced inter-annual variation in whale numbers on the coastal breeding areas (Charlton et al. 2021, Charlton et al. 2022, Smith et al. 2022). Whether these correlations explain recent fluctuations in breeding cycles reported for breeding females at Head of Bight
(Charlton et al. 2022), is unknown.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
32
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Biologically important areas and habitat critical to
survival
2.10.1 Biologically Important Areas
Biologically Important Areas (BIAs) for Southern Right Whales were originally identified as part of the Commonwealth Bioregional Planning Process to develop Marine Bioregional Plans that were released in 2012. BIAs represent spatially and temporally defined areas that have been mapped, where Southern Right Whales are known, or likely, to display biologically important behaviours (e.g., reproductive, feeding, migration or resting) based on identification of the following:

 Behaviour (reproductive, feeding, migration).
 Certainty of occurrence (2 categories based on areas of known or likely occurrence).
 The extent to which a species uses the BIA; and
 The temporal period (e.g., seasonality and months) during which species use the BIA.

Each BIA has been identified based on the best available information and knowledge, including peer-review scientific literature, unpublished grey literature, and expert knowledge. The presence of the observed behaviour indicates that the habitat required for the behaviour is also present. However, the absence of an identified BIA does not mean that an area is not important habitat and rather insufficient data may currently exist to designate it as a BIA. New or unpublished data may exist that may need to be considered in the context of marine estate management and marine development proposals.

Southern Right Whale BIAs are mapped in this Recovery Plan for:

 Reproductive areas - Areas where mating, calving, nursing and/or presence of
neonates are known, or likely, to occur.
 Migration areas - Areas southern right whales are known, or likely, to use for
movement between regions that support biologically important behaviour (e.g., coastal
movement between reproductive areas).
Reproductive areas

There are 10 reproductive BIAs (Figure 4) which are regularly used by breeding females and are likely to be important for the species recovery through contributing to overall population increases in abundance, maintenance of genetic diversity (given site fidelity may lead to small- scale genetic differences) and expanding habitat occupancy. Within reproductive BIAs, Southern
Right Whales demonstrate a spatial and temporal dependence to these critical areas, and calving is known (due to presence of calves) to consistently occur in varying densities. Information on known habitat characteristics in areas where southern right whales engage in reproductive behaviour may also be included in the determination of reproductive BIAs.

These indicative mapped reproductive areas include:
 Western Australia: Geographe Bay, Flinders Bay, Cheyne Beach to Doubtful Island Bay
region, Yokinup Bay, Israelite Bay and Twilight Cove.
 South Australia: Head of Bight, Fowlers Bay, and Encounter Bay.
 Victoria: Portland to Port Campbell region.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
33
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Migration areas

These are areas that Southern Right Whales are known (or likely) to use for movement between regions that support biologically important behaviours. This includes the coastal movement of whales and encompasses locations occupied irregularly by mothers and calves for reproduction, which may become more important as reproductive areas as recovery progresses.

Accessing BIA information

Maps produced in association with the identification of BIAs allow current information to be stored and referenced in a geospatial environment and can be updated by the Australian
Government as new information becomes available. Consequently, the most current BIA information and spatial data layers must be considered and used to inform conservation planning, environmental impact assessments and decision-making.

Protocols for the creation and updating of BIAs are detailed at: https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/bia-protocol.pdf.

BIA maps of Southern Right Whales can be found on the National Conservation Values Atlas at: https://www.environment.gov.au/webgis-framework/apps/ncva/ncva.jsf

2.10.2 Habitat critical to the survival of the species
A Recovery Plan, under Part 13, section 270 of the EPBC Act, must identify the habitats that are critical to the survival of the species or community concerned, and the actions needed to protect those habitats. The EPBC Act Significant Impact Guidelines 1.1 – Matters of National
Environmental Significance state that “An action is likely to have a significant impact on a threatened species if there is a real chance or possibility that it will: adversely affect habitat critical to the survival of a species.” The definition of habitat critical to the survival of a species are areas necessary:

 for activities such as foraging, breeding, roosting, or dispersal,
 for the long-term maintenance of the species or ecological community (including the
maintenance of species essential to the survival of the species or ecological community,
such as pollinators),
 to maintain genetic diversity and long-term evolutionary development, or
 for the reintroduction of populations or recovery of the species or ecological
community.

Habitat critical to survival for the Southern Right Whale has been identified as all reproductive
BIAs across the species range ( Figure 4). The identification of habitat critical to survival reflects that Southern Right Whales display strong site fidelity to calving areas in Australian coastal waters, within and between years, over decadal time spans (Bannister 2001, Charlton et al. 2021, Watson et al. 2021). Reproductive areas have been identified as habitat critical to the survival of the species based on:

 they meet the species essential life cycle requirements for reproduction (e.g., mating,
calving, and nursing) and reproduction is known to occur at that location,

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
34
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

 there is a level of occupancy by individual breeding females at these locations of
multiple days in any given year, and across multiple years, for long-term maintenance
of the species, and
 they are critical for recovery of the Southern Right Whale in terms of expanding habitat
occupancy and contributing to the maintenance of genetic diversity as site fidelity may
lead to small-scale genetic differences.
No ‘Critical Habitat’ as defined under section 207A of the EPBC Act has been identified, or included, in the Register of Critical Habitat. ‘Critical Habitat’ is different from HCTS and only applies to Commonwealth land. There are also no important cetacean habitat areas identified in the Australian Whale Sanctuary as defined under section 228A of the EPBC Act for Southern
Right Whales.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
35
Draft National Recovery Plan for the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis)

Figure 4 Southern Right Whale reproductive Biologically Important Areas and Habitat Critical to the Survival.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
36
3 Threats and threat prioritisation
Human activities can potentially cause mortality, injury, disturbance, and stress to marine mammals. There are activities that may have lethal effects that result in immediate fatalities
(e.g., whaling, entanglement, collisions with large vessels) and will increase the population mortality rate above that caused by natural factors alone and directly affect population abundance. In contrast, human activities with sub-lethal effects (e.g. habitat displacement) on marine mammals may affect their behaviour and physiology and lead to impacts on their health that may ultimately have population level effects (National Academies of Sciences 2017).

The largest threat to Southern Right Whales that resulted in their dramatic population reduction was commercial whaling. This has resulted in a reduction of their historical range, and varying levels of recovery across the two populations (Carroll et al. 2014, Harcourt et al. 2019). Due to the life history characteristics of Southern Right Whales (see section 2.4), any impacts from threats will unlikely be detectable, or even reliably identified, over short timescales (i.e., 3 years). Impacts at the population level will likely only become identifiable over decadal timescales. The capability of Southern Right Whales to respond to any threats will likely be moderated by their life history characteristics and philopatry to reproductive and foraging areas, particularly among reproductive females.

The main threats to the survival of the Southern Right Whale are anthropogenic climate variability and change, entanglement in fishing gear, habitat degradation, anthropogenic underwater noise, and vessel strike. Other known or potential threats identified in this plan include whaling (if it were to resume), pollution and prey depletion from overharvesting. To ensure the conservation and recovery of Southern Right Whales, there is a need to protect existing and potential breeding habitat throughout the species current and projected range.
Improved knowledge of their seasonal movements between calving areas, foraging, and migratory habitat is needed to implement effective management interventions.

The following provides an overview of the key threats to Australian Southern Right Whales, noting the current management measures in place to address the threat. Threats are listed in order of priority based on risk, as determined by the threat prioritisation process outlined in section 3.10.

Anthropogenic climate change and climate variability
Modelling the links between krill and whale population dynamics with climate change, including changes in ocean temperature, primary productivity and sea ice, suggests future ocean conditions are likely to have a negative impact on krill populations and in association the baleen whale species that feed on them (Tulloch et al. 2019). Strong correlations have been observed between environmental conditions (e.g., sea surface temperature anomalies) on right whale high latitude feeding grounds and female reproductive success and recovery on their winter breeding grounds (Leaper et al. 2006, Meyer-Gutbrod et al. 2015, Seyboth et al. 2016). In the South
Atlantic, conception can be affected by high sea surface temperatures (which can also occur as a result of earlier onset of El Niño conditions) in the autumn months of the previous year of conception and can lead to depressed pregnancy rates (Leaper et al. 2006). Variability in prey abundance has been linked with climate cycles (e.g. El Niño-Southern Oscillation; ENSO) and

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
37
ocean warming in high latitude ecosystems, with anthropogenic climate change increasing the frequency and intensity of these climate cycles, and potentially impacting foraging opportunities
(Dedden & Rogers 2022).

Southern Right Whale breeding success is believe to be driven by an underlying relationship with the availability and fluctuation of prey abundance on summer high latitude foraging areas and variation in calving rate may be influenced by climate factors impacting changes to calving intervals (Pirzl et al. 2008). If so, data on calving histories may be more effective and accessible indicators of the effects of oceanographic conditions on breeding success than data on pregnancy rates (Leaper et al. 2006). Annual calf production at the Head of Bight has been linked to variability in the ENSO, with reduced reproductive output associated with El Niño conditions on a 2.5 to 3-year time lag. Extended intervals between successful calving events have also been associated with variability in the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) on a 3-year time lag (Pirzl et al.
2008). The likelihood of a negative impact from climate change on Southern Right Whale breeding success is unclear, and at present there are uncertainties in how anthropogenic climate driven changes might impact the Southern Ocean ecosystems and the food webs on which
Southern Right Whales rely.

Entanglement
Entanglements occur when whales encounter materials such as fishing lines, ropes and nets and parts of their body become entangled. Entanglement and bycatch in fisheries gear (either active or discarded fishing gear) is a significant threat to the survival of cetacean species and populations globally (IWC 2010). There is relatively good understanding on the types of gear involved in causing death to marine vertebrates by entanglement, although comparatively little is known about which types of debris cause mortality through ingestion (Roman et al. 2021).
Entanglement in fishing gear is one of the major threats to the survival of the Critically
Endangered North Atlantic Right Whale (NARW)(Moore et al. 2021, Knowlton et al. 2022). Sub- lethal entanglements in fishing gear are energetically costly for large whales (van der Hoop et al.
2017) and have been attributed to depressed growth in NARW, resulting in shorter body lengths that extends also to offspring of females of shorter body length (Stewart et al. 2021). The impact of entanglement in the body length and condition of the whales has consequences on the whales reproductive success, with reduced body length a potential contributor to low birth rates
(Stewart et al. 2022). The risk of entanglement is not as high to Australian Southern Right
Whales compared to NARW, however, the consequences in terms of energetic costs and impact to body condition and health could likely be the same.

3.2.1 Active fishing or aquaculture equipment
In Australia, the overlap between the nearshore coastal distribution of Southern Right Whales and inshore fisheries increases the risk associated with encountering fisheries gear and entanglement. Historical analyses of entanglements has observed an increase in reported entanglements of Southern Right Whales across their range in fishing gear from the 1980’s to
2006, with at least one fatal entanglement (in longline fishing gear) and 12 non-fatal entanglements (Kemper et al. 2008). Most entanglements were related to lines or nets, often associated with traps and pots set to catch crustaceans with one entanglement in a fish farm in
Tasmania (Kemper et al. 2008). More recent evaluation of cetacean incidental entanglements and bycatch throughout Australian waters reported 28 entanglements between 1887 to 2016,

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
38
and identified that the highest risk to Southern Right Whales was from trap and net gear
(Tulloch et al. 2020).

Passive fishing gear, such as mesh nets and conventional drumlines, are often deployed adjacent to populated beaches as a public safety measure for bather protection to reduce shark interactions with beach-goers (McPhee et al. 2021). This is particularly prominent in
Queensland and New South Wales and results in the capture of target and non-target species, including whales such as humpback whales (Industries 2022). There is the potential risk of entanglement in bather protection shark mesh nets to Southern Right Whales due to their coastal dependence and distribution and in NSW remain in place where Southern Right Whales have been recorded. There has also been a recognised need for non-lethal methods, including new technologies, due in part to the consequence of bycatch in these systems. Recently, the new shark fishing device known as the Shark-Management-Alert-in-Real-Time (SMART) drumline has been trialled in NSW and WA in many coastal areas which could assist mitigation of
Southern Right Whale entanglements associated with bather protection programs (McPhee et al.
2021).

The impact of entanglement to Southern Right Whales is likely to be greatest for the eastern population, given that any entanglement affecting mortality or fitness of even a low number of breeding females in that region may have a significant impact on recovery rates. The eastern population is distributed across a region of densely human populated cities and coastal areas and overlaps with State and Commonwealth commercial and recreational crab and lobster fisheries. In comparison, due to the higher population abundance of the western population, entanglement is unlikely to have population level impacts at current levels of entanglement rates. However, changes to the southern rock lobster trap fishery in SA, including opening the fishing season year round since 2017 (Linnane et al. 2017), have increased the number of gear and vessels in or near important calving grounds and migratory routes, and this may result in more right whale entanglements in the future (Tulloch et al. 2020).

Substantial progress towards addressing the threat of entanglement can occur when there is collaboration between the fishing industry, government, non-government organisations and research organisations, e.g. How et al. (2015). In WA, the Western Rock Lobster Council developed the West Coast Rock Lobster Managed Fishery Code of Practice for Reducing Whale
Entanglements in association with government and non-government agencies to reduce interactions with whales. Similarly, a Code of Practice Southern Rocklobster Responsible fishing guidelines for operators in Victoria was developed in Victoria and a Code of Practice for the NSW
Lobster Fishery was established in NSW. Gear modifications have been shown to effectively reduce the threat of entanglement in fishing gear, for example in the WA rock lobster fishery the elimination of surface rope through shortened rope lengths and reduced float numbers reduced entanglement by at least 25 percent with a median reduction of 64 percent (How et al. 2021).
There is substantial focus and effort being undertaken in evaluating and implementing ropeless fishing gear to reduce the risk of entanglement to whales and minimise gear loss (Myers et al.
2019), with trials of ropeless technology underway in several States (i.e. NSW, VIC, WA).

3.2.2 Marine debris
Pollution of the marine environment by solid waste termed “marine debris” is a growing global challenge that has concerns to the welfare of all marine wildlife, including charismatic megafauna such as whales (Roman et al. 2021). The United Nations Environment Program

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
39
define marine debris (or marine litter) as any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of, or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment
(Macfadyen et al. 2009). Marine debris may cause injury or death through drowning, injury through entanglement and internal injuries, or starvation following ingestion. Marine debris that causes injury and fatality through entanglement and ingestion was recognised in 2003 as a key threatening process for marine vertebrates under the EPBC Act. In response, the Threat
Abatement Plan for the impacts of marine debris on the vertebrate wildlife of Australia’s coasts and oceans (2018) (Marine Debris TAP) was developed. Marine debris, as defined under the Marine
Debris TAP, consists of:

 land-sourced garbage,
 fishing gear from recreational and commercial fishing abandoned or lost to the sea, and
 vessel-sourced, solid, non-biodegradable floating materials disposed of or lost at sea.
Entanglement of whales in derelict fishing gear that has been abandoned, lost or discarded from commercial or recreational fisheries can pose a risk to cetaceans and other protected marine species, such as marine turtle, dugong and sawfish (Kiessling 2003). In the case of whales, it can be difficult to determine the proportion of entanglements caused by active versus discarded fishing gear because they can potentially interact and displace active fishing gear that may not be recorded using standard bycatch methods (Macfadyen et al. 2009, Tulloch et al. 2020). In
Australia, the risk of entanglement in active fishing gear is far greater than discarded and derelict gear and few Southern Right Whales have been reported entangled (Tulloch et al. 2020).

Marine debris can also enter the marine environment in the form of plastic from multiple sources from land-based activities, and coastal urban areas can heavily pollute watersheds and contaminate the oceans. There is a positive correlation between urban density and microplastic abundance and therefore marine organisms inhabiting coastal waters are at risk of microplastic ingestion (Au et al. 2017). Microplastics are ingested by marine animals in a range of ways, such as up the food web via trophic transfer and of particular concern for baleen whales, directly consumed in large volumes of water while foraging (Zantis et al. 2022). Ingestion of marine debris, however, is thought to be unlikely for Southern Right Whales in Australian coastal waters given whales are less likely to be feeding.

Habitat degradation
Physical modification of habitat can degrade the quality and reduce the quantity of available habitat and may be caused by the construction of ports and marinas, oil and gas infrastructure, marine aquaculture facilities, marine renewable energy infrastructure and coastal development.
It has the potential to spatially displace individuals or modify behaviour. Habitat degradation may result in short-term physical displacement of individuals from areas and habitat that they may rely upon (e.g., BIAs), and over the long-term could result in loss or abandonment of important habitats such as those used for reproduction and feeding, ultimately reducing a population’s capacity for recovery.

3.3.1. Infrastructure/coastal development
Habitat degradation through the development of infrastructure such as ports, marinas, aquaculture facilities, and marine/ocean energy production facilities could lead to the physical displacement of Southern Right Whales from preferred habitats and disrupt movements,

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
40
potentially acting as barriers to migration into coastal breeding areas. The construction of such infrastructure may involve dredging and pile driving which can also alter and degrade habitat through creation of underwater noise. Displacement of whales through habitat degradation has the potential to reduce breeding success (Best 2000) by forcing animals to reproduce in more marginal environments and by increasing their exposure to other risks such as entanglement, predation, collisions and pollution. Associated industrial activities in the coastal zone may also reduce habitat within biologically important areas.

3.3.2. Infrastructure/offshore development
Marine-based renewable energy involves using offshore wind, waves, and tidal power in coastal and offshore waters. With the introduction of the Offshore Electricity Infrastructure Act 2021 to facilitate and regulate the development of electricity infrastructure in Commonwealth waters, there is expected to be substantial increases in the development of marine-based renewable energy facilities and infrastructure in coastal and offshore waters. Offshore development could lead to physical displacement of Southern Right Whales, particularly by acting as barriers to migration into coastal breeding areas.

Anthropogenic underwater noise
Anthropogenic underwater noise is recognised as having a potentially significant impact on marine animals, and in particular marine mammals, because they rely on sound for basic life functions such as communication (including for mating), navigation, foraging, and predator avoidance. Their dependence on sound for their survival makes them sensitive to anthropogenic noise, which can affect the health and fitness of individuals, and can ultimately result in population level effects (Erbe et al. 2018). Anthropogenic underwater noise is categorised as impulsive noise types (e.g., pile driving and seismic airguns) or non-impulsive noise types (e.g., shipping), that can be of short (i.e., transient) or longer duration (i.e., chronic). These may have impacts on marine mammals ranging from temporary behavioural responses, stress, and acoustic interference (i.e., masking) to hearing impairment (i.e., Temporary Threshold Shift or
Permanent Threshold Shift), physical injury and mortality (Southall et al. 2007, Southall et al.
2019). Growing evidence demonstrates that the probability of a behavioural response involves factors additional to the received levels that animals are exposed, and include the animals behavioural state and nature and novelty of the sound (Ellison et al. 2012).

Impacts to marine mammals from anthropogenic underwater noise can be assessed using noise exposure criteria, which considers that marine mammals vary in hearing sensitivity and underwater noise in certain frequency ranges may impact marine mammal taxa differently
(Southall et al. 2019). Much of the research attention on determining impact and threshold levels for regulation has focused on single exposure metrics to assess acute effects. Whereas adverse effects of chronic sound sources (e.g. commercial shipping) at the individual, population, species’ habitat, or ecosystem levels have not been incorporated into management decisions
(Ellison et al. 2012). Furthermore, there is currently a lack of understanding of the impacts from cumulative exposure from multiple sources of anthropogenic underwater noise on marine mammals and the appropriate frameworks for assessment (Faulkner et al. 2018).

The potential for impacts from anthropogenic underwater noise is of particular concern within or close to HCTS for Southern Right Whales (i.e., reproduction BIAs) where whales are resident for long periods (e.g., weeks to months) of time and pregnant and nursing females and calves are

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
41
present. Marine mammals, such as Southern Right Whales, rely on underwater sound to communicate. The range their sounds can be successfully detected can be limited by contributions of anthropogenic noise to the marine soundscape. Anthropogenic underwater noise can mask the whale’s underwater acoustic communication or if the sound is loud and in close proximity may cause physical injury. Right whales have demonstrated increases in the amplitude of their upcall in response to increasing background noise levels, particularly in the frequency below 400 Hz, which is the range they use to communicate (Parks et al. 2010). As
Southern Right Whales recover from commercial whaling and their distribution and abundance increases, anthropogenic underwater noise may have the potential to displace and/or deter
Southern Right Whales from HCTS or currently unused but historically important areas.

3.4.1. Industrial noise
An increasing threat is interference from construction noise arising from coastal and offshore developments. The construction, operation and decommissioning of coastal and offshore oil and gas platforms or floating processing facilities, marinas and ports, and marine renewable energy facilities all create underwater noise from a wide range of activities. Development activities that produce anthropogenic underwater noise include pile-driving, blasting, some forms of dredging and sonar that are of transient in nature whereas chronic industrial noise may include vessel noise (shipping and tender vessels) and operation of oil and gas facilities. There are also peripheral support activities, such as additional shipping traffic especially around marinas and ports, and additional helicopter activity around oil and gas platforms to transport personnel.
Most of these infrastructure projects require pile-driving during construction, which involves driving piles (beams or posts) into the seafloor to support the foundations of the structure. This creates strong (e.g. dependent on hammer energy; 237 dB re: 1 μPa @ 1 m for 1000 kJ hammer) and predominately low frequency (<1000 Hz) intermittent noise (Hildebrand 2009). Oil and gas developments also include other activities that contribute to anthropogenic noise, including trenching and pipe laying during construction, drilling, power generation and pumping during operation, and explosions.

Associated with a greater understanding of the impacts of climate change on our environment, there is growing demand for sustainable, or green energy, to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions. Subsequently, there has been an increasing number of offshore wind farms and tidal turbines proposed, developed, and installed globally in recent years, predominantly in Europe.
Australia is in the initial stages of exploring the development and installation of offshore energy infrastructure, regulated through the Offshore Electricity Infrastructure Act 2021. Most research of underwater noise impacts related to offshore wind energy has focussed on the construction phase rather than the operational phase, and particularly pile driving (Stöber & Thomsen 2021).
Most of the energy of operational noise from offshore wind infrastructure is in the lower frequency range (i.e. below 1 kHz) and underwater noise levels from operational wind farms increase with the size of the wind turbines, expressed in terms of their nominal power output
(Tougaard et al. 2020, Stöber & Thomsen 2021).

3.4.2. Seismic surveys
Seismic systems use intense, impulsive sound to actively image geological structures below the seafloor and seismic surveys used for oil and gas exploration are a particularly intense source of noise when undertaken. Marine seismic surveys are a method of locating and describing marine oil and gas deposits. This is achieved by using air gun arrays towed behind ships to release air

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
42
downward under pressure, producing powerful (up to 260 dB re: 1 μPa @ 1 m) and predominately low frequency (5 to 300 Hz) sound waves typically repeated in ~10 s intervals
(Hildebrand 2009). Impulsive sounds such as these present a greater risk than most continuous sounds because of the high peak levels and frequent repetition. Note that while the level of the anthropogenic sound is usually reported at 1 m from the source as is standard, it is the level of the sound when received by the individual that is relevant for the whale (but this value is more difficult to determine). At lower received levels other responses may occur such as displacement and behavioural responses, such as increased social and feeding call rates as demonstrated in blue whales (Di Iorio & Clark 2010).

The risk of physical impacts to Southern Right Whales is mitigated by implementation of the practical measures outlined in the EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1— interaction between offshore seismic exploration and whales. Impacts can be classified as physical (e.g., permanent or temporary hearing loss) when within proximity to a seismic noise source, and behavioural (e.g., avoidance of areas, disruption to calving and nursing behaviour, stress) which may occur many km’s from the seismic survey. While the seismic guidelines advise that seismic surveys should be undertaken outside of times the species occupy BIAs, it is not known at what distance from a seismic source behavioural impacts occur or the extent of any behavioural impact. Furthermore, the EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1 does not consider cumulative noise exposure from multiple noise sources and periods. The precautionary principle should be applied in these cases when a lack of full scientific certainty exists.

3.4.3. Vessel noise
Marine traffic in the world’s oceans is increasing and consequently so too are the levels of vessel noise, with vessel noise being the primary source of chronic noise exposure on marine mammals. Marine traffic consists of small recreational vessels ranging to large commercial ships.
Ship traffic contributes to increasing low frequency ambient noise levels within the vocalisation and hearing range of baleen whales (Miksis-Olds et al. 2013, Miksis-Olds & Nichols 2016, Erbe et al. 2019). Increases in numbers of smaller recreational vessels is linked to increasing human population and use of the coastal marine environment. Whereas commercial ships are increasing in number and size, which is linked to overall economic growth (Erbe et al. 2019).

There have been periodic reviews of the state of knowledge of impacts from vessel noise on marine mammals (Richardson et al. 1995, Nowacek et al. 2007, Erbe et al. 2018). Most research of the impact of vessel noise on right whales has been on North Atlantic right whales because the population is Critically Endangered, and vessel strike is one of the major causes of mortality.
Ship noise can potentially increase stress in right whales, with analyses of North Atlantic right whale faecal hormone metabolites showing a decrease in baseline stress hormone levels associated with a reduction in ship traffic, and a 6 dB decrease in background noise levels with significant reduction in noise below 150 Hz (Rolland et al. 2012). Modelling of shipping noise and right whale vocalisations suggests that nearby large vessels (e.g. container ships) and increased background noise from distant shipping may mask vocalisations and substantially limit the communication space of right whales, particularly mother and calf pairs (Cunningham
& Mountain 2014, Tennessen & Parks 2016).

Modelling the cumulative levels of shipping noise in Australian waters shows areas where shipping noise may have greater contributions to the marine soundscape above background noise from natural processes such wind noise (Peel et al. 2021). Areas where vessel noise has a

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
43
greater contribution to the marine soundscape and are closest to Southern Right Whale BIAs, occur off the Gippsland coast of Victoria and the northern NSW coastline, where there is greater vessel traffic from domestic and international vessel transits (Peel et al. 2021). The other area where vessel noise contributes above wind noise, although to a lesser extent than Victoria and
NSW, is the south-west WA coast near reproductive BIAs occurring from Augusta to Albany.

3.4.4. Aircraft noise
Low-flying airplanes and helicopters (e.g., used for tourist charter flights and research) can propagate sound along the ocean surface and into the water column. The volume and extent of propagation vary depending on the type of aircraft and the length of time the aircraft is in the area (Luksenburg & Parsons 2009). These sounds are typically of short duration and limited to the area directly below the aircraft. Aircraft noise, most likely from a light aircraft, was recorded in underwater noise recordings in Fowlers Bay (SA) and characterised by relatively low frequency sound between approximately 150 and 600 Hz (Ward et al. 2019). Fowlers Bay is identified as a reproductive BIA and is largely removed from major shipping routes that would contribute vessel noise to the marine soundscape, such that anthropogenic noise from vessels and aircrafts was sporadic and did not contribute significantly to noise levels (Ward et al. 2019).

Noise from low-flying aircraft and helicopters could cause disturbance in aggregation areas, especially when whales spend a significant amount of time at the surface (e.g., resting mother and calf pairs) and where there is repeated exposure. Southern Right Whales have demonstrated behavioural reactions to helicopters, most likely as a result of the down draught of the rotor blades at low altitude, by increasing their dive times (Ling & Needham 1988).

Collision
The risk of collision can result from the introduction of physical objects, mobile or immobile, that may collide with or result in potential collision of marine mammals. The most common type of collision involving whales is vessel strike, where vessels may cause physical injury or behavioural disturbance to whales. Vessel collision or vessel strike is defined as any physical impact (i.e. including non-fatal and fatal) involving any part of a vessel (most commonly bow or propeller) and a live whale (Cates et al. 2017). Vessel collisions can involve a range of vessel types from large commercial vessels to recreational vessels, including personal watercraft.
Interactions of Southern Right Whales with commercial vessels involved in whale-watching activities is addressed in a separate section due to the specific management arrangements (i.e., national guidelines) that exist for these vessels.

There is also the potential risk of collision with underwater turbines associated with wind energy developments, although this predominantly relates to tidal and river energy conversion technologies and their underwater moving components (Sparling et al. 2020). It is possible the greater risk of collision associated with offshore wind turbines would be associated with vessel strike from support vessels.

3.5.1 Vessel strike
In Australia, Southern Right Whales are the second most common species involved in Australian vessel strikes, which is consistent with worldwide data (Peel et al. 2018). An historical assessment of vessel strike between 1950 – 2006 involving Southern Right Whales undertaken

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
44
by Kemper et al. (2008) found two fatal and three non-fatal vessel collisions in Australian waters, although this likely provided an underestimate due to the use of mainly stranding records to assess human related mortality and injury. At present, there have been ten vessel strike reports of Southern Right Whales in Australian waters between 1997 and 2015, with at least four mortalities including mother-calf pairs in the region of the eastern population
(Kemper et al. 2008, Lanyon & Janetzki 2016, Peel et al. 2018). A presumed non-fatal vessel collision was documented by local researchers at Head of Bight in 2016, where a mother with a calf with propeller cuts on her body were photographically documented although no other reports of the interaction exist, presumably because the vessel strike went unnoticed from on- board the vessel (Peel et al. 2018).

The greatest challenge to understanding the threat of vessel strike is that many incidents go unreported for a range of reasons (e.g. particularly from large vessels that may not notice a strike), which makes quantifying the threat difficult (Peel et al. 2018, Ritter & Panigada 2019).
For example, there is only one vessel strike report involving a large vessel (> 50 m) in Australian waters, yet there is evidence that collisions with larger vessels are occurring (e.g. photographs of vessel strike wounds and whale stranding’s with wounds consistent of propeller cuts), therefore the lack of data is most likely a detection issue (Peel et al. 2018).

Vessel strike has been demonstrated to have a significant impact on small recovering whale populations, such as the North Atlantic right whale, whereby the mortality rate is particularly high compared to the overall population size (Conn & Silber 2013). Consequently, the threat of vessel strike in Australia is likely to be greater in the eastern population than the western population, given its small population size and overlap with highly human populated regions and Australia’s largest ports (i.e., Melbourne and Sydney).

Proven effective mitigation measures for addressing vessel strike are to reduce co-occurrence of vessels with whales through separation of vessels from areas with high concentrations of whales and to reduce vessel speeds. Such measures require the identification of high risk areas through detailed studies of patterns of whale and vessel distribution (MEPC 2021). The timing of reported vessel strike incidents in Australia matches the migratory patterns of whale species
(Peel et al. 2018). Mitigation actions to prevent injury and minimise disturbance from vessels to
Southern Right Whales include seasonal or temporary area restrictions/exclusions and speed restrictions in biologically important areas and habitat critical for survival.

The National Strategy for Reducing Vessel Strike on Cetaceans and other Marine Megafauna 2017 outlines a strategic framework for minimising the risk of vessel strike, including data acquisition to address knowledge gaps, data analysis to determine the risk of vessel strike, mitigation to reduce the likelihood and severity of vessel collision and effective communication at all stages of the process. The Australian Maritime Safety Authority regulates and manages commercial shipping in Australia and is responsible for the safety and navigation of domestic commercial vessels and prevention of shipping related pollution in the marine environment.

3.5.2 Whale Watching
Commercial whale watching is recognised as having educational, cultural, and direct and indirect economic benefits for regional communities. However, there is also the potential for whale watching by commercial vessels to negatively impact whale populations over time. Direct and modelled evidence documents short-term responses of cetaceans to disturbance caused by

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
45
whale-watching vessels (Erbe 2002, Parsons 2012, Christiansen et al. 2013, New et al. 2015,
Sprogis et al. 2020). For example, modelled short term exposure of vessel noise causing a temporary shift in hearing threshold of killer whales and prolonged exposure potentially causing permanent shifts in hearing (Erbe 2002), or behavioural disturbance to minke whales through shorter dives, increased sinuous movement, and reduced foraging activity (Christiansen et al. 2013). For Southern Right Whales, there are potential concerns regarding vessel disturbance from noise and the presence of whale watch vessels in BIAs where there might be repeated exposure on individuals, such as mothers and calves.

The Australian Government developed the Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin
Watching 2017 to ensure whale watching is a sustainable practice that minimises impacts on whales and dolphins. The Commonwealth, State and Territory governments have regulations on interacting with marine mammals, including specified approach distances, no approach and caution zones, and restrictions on the numbers of vessels allowed around marine mammals.
Consequently, the whale-watching industry is regulated and the risk of vessel collision from whale-watching vessels is considered low, although compliance with regulations is difficult to monitor. Given the scale of the industry and number of whale-watch operators that may opportunistically encounter Southern Right Whales, there is the potential for acute disturbance events related to the presence of vessels that could lead to cumulative chronic disturbance across their range if regulations are not complied with.

Commercial boat-based whale watching targeting Southern Right Whales is currently located in
Busselton, Flinders Bay and Albany in south-west Western Australia, around the Fleurieu
Peninsula and Fowlers Bay in South Australia. Within the NSW South Coast, whale watch operators are also beginning to target Southern Right Whales during June to August when humpback whales are less frequent and Southern Right Whale sightings are slowly increasing.
These areas include Eden, Merimbula, Bermagui, Narooma, Batemans Bay and Shellharbour.
Opportunistic whale watching also occurs in western Victoria (i.e., Port Phillip and Westernport
Bays), Tasmania, Western Australia, and New South Wales. Most of the opportunistic whale watching occurs in the eastern population range of Southern Right Whales where the numbers of whales are lowest and most inconsistent. Consequently, this may have a significant impact on the eastern population if opportunistic whale watching causes disturbance to resting and calving
Southern Right Whales and is not actively managed.

A form of commercial interaction that has emerged is the “swim-with” industry in which swimmers enter the water and attempt to closely observe free ranging whales and dolphins, particularly with humpback whales (Stack et al. 2021). Behavioural responses from humpback whales to swim-with whale tours have been reported in both Hervey Bay and Ningaloo Reef, with responses likely context-dependent, however, these include whales exhibiting horizontal and vertical avoidance strategies by adopting a less predictable path, increasing turning angles away from the vessel, increasing swim speeds, and decreasing the duration of their dives (Stack et al. 2021). There are no ‘swim-with-whale’ programs permitted for the Southern Right Whale in Australia.

3.5.3 Recreational vessels
Disturbance from opportunistic (e.g., sightseeing, fishing, scuba diving) and private recreational vessels, or others, may negatively affect whale populations over time as an incidental consequence of the primary activity being undertaken. This may occur from associated activities

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
46
such as swimmers in the water or the presence of the vessel. The shallow waters and protected embayments preferred by Southern Right Whales resting and weaning calves often overlap favoured areas by recreational water users, including swimmers, kayakers, stand-up paddle boarders and small motorised vessels (i.e., jet-skis). Mother and calf pairs resting in these areas are at potential risk of disturbance from recreational users which may result in displacement from these areas. The Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching and State and Territory approach guidelines define standards for the approach distances of all vessels to whales and dolphins to reduce disturbance and potential risk of vessel collisions.

Whaling
Right whales were a primary target of whalers from the mid-16th century to late 20th century and the near extirpation of many Southern Right Whale populations from commercial whaling has been well documented (Reeves & Smith 2003, Jackson et al. 2008)(see also section 2.3).
Commercial whaling of Southern Right Whales is currently banned under the IWC moratorium on commercial whaling, and protection is afforded due to their classification by the IWC as
‘Protected Stocks’. It is currently unlikely that commercial whaling in areas covered by
Australia’s Southern Ocean Sanctuary will resume, however, there is no certainty that countries not part of the IWC may not renew whaling interests in these areas in the future.

Prey depletion
3.7.1 Prey depletion from overfishing
Southern Right Whales rely on krill and copepods as a major food source, and as capital breeders require adequate supplies of food to accumulate energy reserves for migration and breeding
(Bannister et al. 1997, Tormosov et al. 1998). Over-exploitation of prey stocks impose major threats to whales dependent upon them for food (Tulloch et al. 2019), with Antarctic krill
(Euphausia superba) an ecologically and commercially important species in the Southern Ocean
(McBride et al. 2021) and target of the largest fishery in the Southern Ocean (Nicol et al. 2012).
The krill fishery is managed through CCAMLR on an ecosystem basis that takes into account the needs of predators such as whales (McBride et al. 2021). Australia is a Member of CCAMLR, and krill fishery catch limits off the Australian Antarctic Territory are determined using a precautionary approach that aims to minimise the threat of overfishing by krill fisheries to species such as Southern Right Whales.

Climate change and ocean warming are projected to reduce available krill habitat in the
Southern Ocean, with contraction to their southern limits and resulting in possible declines in abundance and/or biomass (Murphy et al. 2017, Veytia et al. 2020). Consequently, reducing fishing pressure on Southern Right Whale prey is one option for mitigating the overall consequences of climate change on krill (Klein et al. 2018).

3.7.2 Prey depletion from seismic survey
Current understanding of the potential impacts of seismic survey airgun noise on zooplankton is limited, despite their importance in marine ecosystems, although high mortality can occur on small localised scales of < 10 m (Fields et al. 2019). Exposure of zooplankton to the intense, low- frequency, acoustic impulse signals in the first large experimental field setting found a decrease in zooplankton abundance with associated mortality within the area of seismic activity up to 1.2

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
47
km from the source (McCauley et al. 2017). A modelled simulation scenario based on these findings, utilising the same mortality rates and ocean circulation models, found the decline in zooplankton can be spatially dependent and affected by ocean circulation. Zooplankton biomass within 15 km recovered quickly (~3 days) based on fast growth rate parameters. Greater declines were estimated at closer distances (up to 15km), with minimal impact at regional scales
(≥ 15 km) (Richardson et al. 2017).

Any impacts of seismic activity on prey abundance or distribution are unlikely to have a substantial impact on Southern Right Whales during the austral winter breeding season because the whales do not typically forage during this time. If opportunistic foraging were undertaken, it would likely be constrained to upwelling areas of higher productivity. The greatest impact to
Southern Right Whales from prey depletion by seismic surveys would likely occur on Southern
Right Whale foraging areas in the Southern Ocean and Antarctic waters (Erbe et al. 2019), although seismic activity is low at present in these areas.

Pollution
A wide variety of pollutants can enter the marine environment through processes including dumping, run-off from urban, agricultural, or industrial sources, effluent from sewerage treatment outflows and atmospheric transport. Marine pollution can have a variety of possible direct consequences for Southern Right Whales at an individual and population level, or indirectly through harming their prey or the ecosystem. In extreme cases, acute chemical discharge such as oil or condensate spills have shown to cause long-term, population-level declines in whales (due to toxicity and associated mortality) (Matkin et al. 2008). The threat of toxic marine pollution to the environment is managed through a variety of initiatives. The threat of pollution entering the sea through dumping is managed by the Environment Protection (Sea
Dumping) Act 1981 and the Environment Protection (Sea Dumping) Amendment Act 1986. Land- based pollution sources are managed through Australia’s National Programme of Action for the
Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities.

3.8.1 Chronic chemical pollution
Southern Right Whales may be regularly exposed to chemical pollution from sewage and industrial discharges and high nutrient load run-off from onshore activities such as agriculture, all of which are the most likely source of pollution in coastal BIAs. In their feeding grounds
Southern Right Whales are most at risk from bioaccumulation of human-made chemicals such as organochlorines and persistent organic pollutants. There has been growing concern regarding pollutants that undergo bioaccumulation (i.e., the accumulation of substances in an organism) and biomagnification (i.e., the increase in concentration of a substance in an organism) up the food chain. Pollutants with these characteristics do not break down quickly in the environment and given many marine mammals are apex marine predators (e.g., killer whales), they have the potential to accumulate relatively high levels through biomagnification. Marine plastics, and particularly microplastics, provide a global transport medium for the most toxic chemicals into the marine food chain and ultimately, to humans. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is one example of pollutants that comprise a wide range of chemicals (e.g. DDT, PCBs) that undergo bioaccumulation and biomagnification (Jones & de Voogt 1999), predominantly entering the marine environment through atmospheric transport, reaching as far as Antarctica (Bengtson
Nash 2011). Due to the recognition of the threat of POPs on human health and the environment,

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
48
the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was enacted in 2001 under the United
Nations Environment Programme for which Australia ratified the Convention in 2004. POPs have been found in the blubber and tissue samples of many cetacean species, including killer whales (Desforges et al. 2018, Schlingermann et al. 2020), humpback, blue (Metcalfe et al. 2004) and fin whales (Taniguchi et al. 2019), and is of particular concern for odontocetes given their marine apex predator status (Jepson Paul & Law Robin 2016). Currently, an evaluation of the threat of POPs to Southern Right Whales has not been undertaken.

Heavy metals are also persistent and can bioaccumulate and biomagnify. Heavy metal concentrations can increase in the environment through mining and processing, burning fossil fuels, and the use of fertilisers or pesticides containing heavy metals. These can enter the marine environment through run-off, effluents, or atmospheric transport. The effects of heavy metals and their degree of toxicity in cetaceans is poorly understood, but there is evidence that heavy metals may pose a threat in baleen whales through immunosuppression, such as hexavalent chromium in North Atlantic right whales (Wise et al. 2008).

3.8.2 Acute chemical discharge
Southern Right Whales could also be exposed to acute chemical discharge, from accidental oil or condensate spills from oil rigs and vessels. Oil spills can affect marine mammals through a variety of direct and indirect pathways. Direct pathways include inhalation, ingestion, and dermal exposure, each of which can initiate a range of physiological responses with health and long-term survival and/or reproduction consequences. For most marine mammals, the most serious acute health threat may be severe damage to the respiratory system through inhalation of the volatile and highly toxic aromatic components of oil (Helm et al. 2014). Ingestion of oil through consumption of contaminated prey would be expected to harm various internal organs
(e.g., liver, kidney, and intestines) and organ systems (e.g., digestive and urogenital). Mild dermal exposure would cause at least short-term injuries to mucus membranes, eyes, and other external soft tissue areas, while severe oiling could result in death by smothering (Helm et al. 2014). Oil spills have the potential to have the greatest impact on Southern Right Whales within or near reproductive BIAs, when there are larger concentrations of whales engaged in breeding activities over sustained periods of time (i.e., weeks to months) and where oil may accumulate.
Oil spills may also affect Southern Right Whales in offshore foraging areas or along historic migration paths.

3.8.3 Electromagnetic field discharge
There is an increase in offshore renewable energy development in Australia’s marine environment to meet the country’s energy needs. Associated with this is likely the installation of subsea power cables connecting turbines, storage banks and export cables to shore. While electromagnetic fields (EMF) occur naturally in the environment, the cables associated with marine renewable energy installations generate both an electric field (E-field) and a magnetic field (B-field) that can contribute to the overall EMF within an area (Gill 2005). Cetaceans can sense the geomagnetic field and potentially use it to navigate during migrations, although it is unclear whether they use the geomagnetic field solely or in addition to other regional cues
(Klinowska 1990, Walker et al. 1992). It is also not known which components of the geomagnetic field cetaceans are sensing (i.e., the horizontal or vertical component, field intensity or inclination angle) and what effects the perturbations in the geomagnetic field within the vicinity of buried power cables may have on these animals. There is a potential for whales to

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
49
respond to local variations of the EMF resulting from increased sources from marine renewable energy installations that could induce short-term behavioural responses (i.e., changes in swim direction) to larger effects influencing migration.

Cumulative effects from threats
The assessment of risk for each threat to Southern Right Whales in this Recovery Plan is considered in isolation of every other threat (see Section 3.10). Although when Southern Right
Whales are subject to multiple threats, acting either simultaneously or consecutively across their life cycle, cumulative effects may occur. A range of natural and anthropogenic stressors can affect Southern Right Whales and these stressors are likely to interact, yet their cumulative effects are difficult to predict. Furthermore, larger-scale ecological drivers may affect many of these stressors. For example, anthropogenic climate change and ocean warming affects Southern
Right Whale prey availability on their foraging grounds, and reduced prey availability has been linked to depressed calving intervals for breeding female Southern Right Whales (Leaper et al.
2006, Seyboth et al. 2016). However, the ability to reliably identify and separate the effects of climate change on female calving rates and breeding success from other threats, such as habitat degradation and disturbance within calving areas, is difficult. Irrespective, if both threats potentially impact on breeding success, then the cumulative effects from both could result in the species decline. Due to the life history characteristics of Southern Right Whales, any cumulative effects are unlikely to be detectable over short timescales (i.e., 1 - 3 years).

Consideration of the spatial and temporal patterns of exposure to stressors and threats is necessary when assessing the potential for cumulative effects of these combined stressors. The occurrence of individual stressors may demonstrate strong spatial and/or temporal variation.
Their effects depend on the extent and timing that whales use BIAs and the whales’ proximity to these stressors. As a migratory species, Southern Right Whales can be exposed to a wide range of threats. However, they also demonstrate philopatry and site fidelity to reproductive areas for calving and nursing, which may lead to cumulative exposure to stressors within these areas.
Although threats to Southern Right Whales operate across the entire species range, they can be spatially biased and usually occur close to more populated coastal areas. Consequently, the eastern population may be at higher risk to threats than the western population given their lower abundance and rate of recovery (Stamation et al. 2020) and greater proximity to higher human density coastal areas and human activities.

The challenge with assessing cumulative effects on animals is that combined effects may not always be reliably predicted from the individual effect of each stressor, because the way each stressor operates in isolation may change or be modified in the presence of other stressors
(Pirotta et al. 2022). At present, the quantitative prediction of cumulative effects of stressors on marine mammals has not been achieved and consequently conceptual frameworks for assessing the population consequences of multiple stressors are developed (National Academies of
Sciences 2017). A key component of this framework is an assessment of the health of individuals. The Population Consequences of Multiple Stressors (PCoMS) model is a framework proposed for exploring pathways from exposures to stressors through their effects on physiology, behaviour, and health of an individual, to their effects on vital rates and population dynamics (National Academies of Sciences 2017). An important component to this is the use of early warning indicators for adverse impacts, including health and population measures (e.g., changes in Southern Right Whale calving intervals), given that reliably measuring trends in

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
50
marine mammal populations over time scales that enable appropriate management responses is often inherently difficult.

Assessing cumulative effects from various threats or stressors in the context of species recovery fundamentally requires a management focus on reducing the current risk to a species. However, some stressors such as climate change or persistent pollutants that operate over long timescales
(i.e., years to decades) cannot be mitigated rapidly. Consequently, this may require a greater focus on managing stressors that can be reduced in the short term, such as anthropogenic underwater noise, entanglement and/or vessel strike (Pirotta et al. 2022). Empirical data or mechanistic predictions of the dose-response of individuals to threats and interactions among stressors are vital to informing a cumulative effects framework. For example, a conceptual framework for assessing combined effects of multiple stressors has been applied to North
Atlantic right whales which feed on limited prey resources while simultaneously being affected by entanglement in fishing gear (Pirotta et al. 2022). It demonstrates the application of assessing cumulative effects from multiple stressors along the spectrum of data-driven to mechanistic process-driven analytical approaches dependant on the level of data/information available on the impact of threats to the species.

Threat Prioritisation
A Southern Right Whale Recovery Plan stakeholder workshop was held in April 2022 that was attended by Commonwealth and State regulatory agencies, threatened species managers, and scientific experts. Each of the threats outlined in sections 3.1 to 3.8 were assessed using a risk matrix approach (Table 3 Risk prioritisation matrix templateTable 3) to identify threats of highest risk and therefore highest priority for action. The risk matrix in Table 3 uses a qualitative assessment drawing on peer reviewed literature and expert opinion to evaluate the likelihood of a threat occurring and the consequences of that threat or impact considering existing mitigation measures. Threats were considered in the context of current management regimes and the impact of each threat has been assessed assuming that existing management measures continue to be applied appropriately.

Threat risk assessments were undertaken for the western and eastern populations separately to account for differences in the trends in recovery between the two populations. Due to different recovery trajectories, the extent to which the identified threats may potentially impact the two populations can differ. The outcome of the threat prioritisation process was used to determine the priority for actions outlined in Section 5. Only recovery actions that address the higher risk threats (rated as ‘very high’ (pink) or ‘high’ (yellow) priority), and measure recovery and address knowledge gaps, have been developed in this Recovery Plan.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
51
Table 3 Risk prioritisation matrix template

Likelihood of Consequence
occurrence
(relevant to No long-term
Minor Moderate Major Catastrophic
species) effect

Almost certain Low Moderate Very High Very High Very High

Likely Low Moderate High Very High Very High

Possible Low Moderate High Very High Very High

Unlikely Low Low Moderate High Very High

Rare or unknown Low Low Moderate High Very High

Levels of risk and the associated priority for action are defined as follows:
 Very High – immediate additional mitigation action required.
 High – additional mitigation action and an adaptive management plan required; the
precautionary principle should be applied.
 Moderate – obtain additional information and develop additional mitigation action is
required.
 Low – monitor the threat occurrence and reassess threat level if likelihood or
consequences change.
Categories for likelihood are defined as follows:
 Almost certain – expected to occur every year.
 Likely – expected to occur at least once every five years.
 Possible – might occur at some time.
 Unlikely – such events are known to have occurred on a worldwide basis but only a
few times.
 Rare or unknown – may occur only in exceptional circumstances; OR it is currently
unknown how often the incident will occur.
Categories for consequences are defined as follows:
 No long-term effect – no long-term effect on individuals or populations.
 Minor – individuals are affected but no affect at population level.
 Moderate – population recovery slows or stalls.
 Major – population declines.
 Catastrophic – population extinction.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
52
Table 4 Western Southern Right Whale population residual risk matrix.

Consequences
Likelihood of
occurrence
Not significant Minor Moderate Major Catastrophic

Almost certain - Anthropogenic - Anthropogenic underwater - Entanglement: active - Anthropogenic
underwater noise: noise: industrial noise * fishing or aquaculture climate variability
aircraft noise - Anthropogenic underwater equipment and change
noise: vessel noise * - Habitat degradation:
- Collision: whale-watching infrastructure of coastal
- Collision: recreational vessels development
- Pollution: chronic chemical - Habitat degradation:
pollution infrastructure of offshore
- Entanglement: marine debris development

Likely - Anthropogenic underwater
noise: seismic surveys
- Collision: vessel strike
- Pollution: EMF *
Possible

Unlikely - Pollution: acute chemical - Whaling ◊
discharge - Prey depletion:
from overfishing ◊
Rare or unknown - Prey depletion: from
seismic survey

* Given the behavioural impacts on Southern Right Whales are largely unknown, a precautionary approach is applied regarding the assignation of possible
consequences.
◊ Threat occurs outside of Australian waters.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
53
Table 5 Eastern Southern Right Whale population residual risk matrix.

Consequences
Likelihood of
Occurrence Not significant Minor Moderate Major Catastrophic

Almost certain - Anthropogenic - Anthropogenic underwater - Anthropogenic - Entanglement:
underwater noise: noise: vessel noise * underwater noise; active fishing or
aircraft noise - Collision; whale-watching industrial noise * aquaculture
- Habitat degradation; equipment
- Collision; recreational vessels
infrastructure of coastal - Collisions; vessel
- Pollution: chronic chemical development strike
pollution - Habitat degradation; - Anthropogenic
- Entanglement: marine debris infrastructure of offshore climate variability
development and change

Likely - Pollution: EMF * - Anthropogenic
underwater noise: seismic
surveys

Possible
Unlikely - Pollution: acute chemical - Whaling ◊
discharge - Prey depletion
from overfishing ◊
Rare or unknown - Prey depletion
from seismic
surveys

* Given the behavioural impacts on Southern Right Whales are largely unknown, a precautionary approach is applied regarding the assignation of possible
consequences.
◊ Threat occurs outside of Australian waters.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
54
Key considerations for environmental impact
assessment processes
This Recovery Plan outlines the key anthropogenic threats and management actions needed to assist the recovery of Southern Right Whales and should be considered when assessing the impact of proposed actions, particularly within BIAs and HCTS. Underlying this is consideration of the principles of ecologically sustainable development (ESD) as outlined under s3A of the
EPBC Act. In particular, the conservation of biological diversity and ecological integrity should be a fundamental consideration in decision-making and environmental considerations should be properly and equally valued in association with economic and social considerations. Another key consideration is the EPBC Act Significant Impact Guidelines 1.1 – Matters of National
Environmental Significance, which provide overarching guidance on determining whether an action is likely to have a significant impact on a listed threatened species. For Southern Right
Whales, actions that interfere with the recovery of the species will ultimately have a significant impact.

3.11.1 Context of species recovery for environmental impact assessments
The Southern Right Whale is an Endangered species under the EPBC Act due to severely reduced population numbers by historical commercial whaling in the 19th century (particularly mid
1800’s) and was considered almost extinct in Australia in the first half of the 20th century
(Bannister 1986, Dawbin 1986, Carroll et al. 2014). The intense over-exploitation of Right
Whales has shaped their current population structure, demographic parameters, and rates of recovery in the different populations across their range (Harcourt et al. 2019). The western and eastern populations of Southern Right Whales in Australia demonstrate varying patterns of recovery, with the eastern population recovering at a slower rate. Although both populations show signs of increase in abundance, current abundance levels remain very low compared to pre-exploitation numbers (Carroll et al. 2014, Stamation et al. 2020).

The life history traits of Southern Right Whales make them particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic threats. They have a long-life span, late sexual maturity, and low reproductive output of one calf every three years on average. These life history traits make it difficult to detect impacts from threats, other than direct mortality, over short time scales that may affect recovery. This consequently warrants a precautionary approach in the assessment of activities that may impact Southern Right Whales, particularly in and adjacent to Southern Right Whale
HCTS and BIAs.

3.11.2 Guidance for decision makers
Actions that will likely compromise the recovery of Southern Right Whales and have a significant impact on the species that must be managed to reduce risk includes, but is not limited to, actions that:
 increases Southern Right Whale mortality and may likely result in declines in
population abundance,
 disrupt the breeding cycle such as by reducing the reproductive success of breeding
Southern Right Whale females,
 reduce the area of occupancy in the species that includes preventing the re-occupation
of historic high use areas, and

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
55
 adversely affect HCTS, potentially through decreasing the availability or quality of the
habitat.
The main threats to the survival of the southern right whale are anthropogenic climate variability and change, entanglement in fishing gear, habitat degradation, anthropogenic underwater noise, and vessel strike. Some of the main associated actions that may present risk to Southern Right Whales include offshore renewable infrastructure development, shipping, and fisheries. The best available knowledge, including scientific advice and published information, should be used to inform environmental impact assessments for Southern Right Whales. Current information on HCTS and BIAs for Southern Right Whales must be used to inform planning, assessment, and decision-making of actions in the marine environment. This must address that female Southern Right Whales have strong site fidelity to certain areas along the Australian coast for breeding (mating, calving, nursing), generally returning to the same location to give birth and nurse offspring. Furthermore, as the population size increases there will be re- occupation of historical habitat and establishment in new areas that need consideration for protection to enable the species to recover. Historic high use areas need consideration in site- selection of marine projects due to their importance historically in supporting large numbers of breeding females, and presently to support re-occupation of these areas as the population recovers. The importance of historic high use areas is supported by two of the four historic high use areas (in southeast South Australia and southwest Victoria) demonstrating consistent current use.

The impact mitigation hierarchy is the framework to avoid, mitigate and offset environmental impacts on MNES, which identifies that avoidance and mitigation measures are the primary strategies for managing the potential significant impact of a proposed action. Given Southern
Right Whales demonstrate high site fidelity to calving areas, offsets cannot compensate for habitat loss in Southern Right Whale reproductive BIAs. The first approach to reduce the risk of impacts from key threats to Southern Right Whales is to avoid Southern Right Whale HCTS wherever practicable at any time whales are present, predominantly between April to
November. For example, in the case of threats from anthropogenic underwater noise resulting from development of marine infrastructure (i.e., pile driving in the pre-operational phase of offshore development), construction activities should be planned at a time when Southern Right
Whales are not present. This requires the implementation of temporal (i.e., seasonal) avoidance measures in or adjacent to HCTS during the critically important calving season.

Where it is not possible to avoid HCTS when Southern Right Whales are present in those areas, reasonably practicable minimisation controls supported by appropriate whale detection and adaptive management measures must be adopted that clearly demonstrate risk minimisation to achieve the actions set out in this Recovery Plan. Verification of the effectiveness of mitigation measures should be undertaken and reported, which could include underwater noise verification studies of noise modelling used to predict impacts and effectiveness of whale detection methods. Impacts that cannot be sufficiently avoided or mitigated should not be approved.

3.11.3 Southern Right Whale monitoring programs
It is incumbent on the proponent to identify the species that may occur in the proposed area of interest and obtain current information about their presence, distribution, and abundance to inform risk assessments. Desktop reviews are useful for obtaining information on the

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
56
occurrence and use of certain areas by the species, which may identify limitations in baseline data. The adequacy of a desktop review relates to the extent of the baseline information obtained, the nature and scale of the activity proposed, and measures adopted to address information gaps. In cases where there are limitations in baseline data and scientific uncertainty exists of potential impacts to Southern Right Whales, options to address this include implementing baseline surveys, applying precautionary control measures and/or developing robust monitoring and adaptive management measures. Fundamentally, environmental impact assessments require sufficient data to support determinations of acceptable impacts to Southern
Right Whales and where limitations in baseline data and scientific uncertainty exists and is not addressed, significant delays to projects may occur.

Baseline surveys and monitoring should take into consideration appropriate spatial and temporal considerations to evaluate the effectiveness of the mitigation measures to ensure activities avoid injury and disturbance to Southern Right Whales. This requires consideration of the spatial scales that Southern Right Whales can range across given they are a migratory species that also undertake coastal movements within the calving season. This would support a regional planning assessment approach of the risk of threats and monitoring in survey areas that extend beyond the construction and operational footprint of a proposed action site. Within a strategic regional planning approach, there should be collaboration and sharing of baseline monitoring data to maximise resources used to inform the status of the species and risk of threats.

Baseline surveys should be undertaken to inform knowledge gaps and scientific uncertainty in baseline data at the pre-referral stage and to allow an adequate baseline understanding to be obtained that potential impacts to Southern Right Whales can be assessed. Baseline surveys and monitoring of Southern Right Whales should be undertaken in accordance with best practice standards and guidelines (e.g., national fauna survey and underwater noise guidelines) to enable standardised data collection and analysis methodologies that can result in the integration of comparable datasets and better-informed environmental management decision making.
Baseline surveys should be undertaken across multiple years (minimum 3 – 5 years) to reliably capture the presence of breeding females given female Southern Right Whales have an average
3-year breeding cycle and any annual variability in the distribution and abundance of Southern
Right Whales in Australian coastal areas. It is important that cross industry and research collaborations be encouraged in broad-scale monitoring aimed at better informing baseline knowledge to reduce duplication in efforts within the same region. In the case of mitigating ongoing impacts, robust monitoring should be undertaken throughout the life of the action to appropriately evaluate outcomes of the predicted levels of impact and inform decisions on adaptive management.

3.11.4 Adaptive management
The primary goal for adaptive management should be to identify the most practical and effective ways to remove or reduce the risk of adverse impacts on Southern Right Whales. There must be an intentional approach to evaluate the effects of the development activity and mitigation measures implemented through monitoring to reduce uncertainty around the potential impacts.
Adaptive management frameworks should be adopted that can account for any new science, new technology and unanticipated changes in environmental factors to reduce uncertainty in the risk of threats.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
57
3.11.5 Cumulative effects
There is a range of natural and anthropogenic threats that affect Southern Right Whales (see section 3), and these stressors are likely to interact. Combined, their cumulative effects can potentially severely affect recovery of the species. For example, the effects of climate change on environmental conditions (e.g. sea surface temperature anomalies) on right whale foraging grounds can affect female reproductive success, resulting in depressed pregnancy rates and subsequently impact recovery on their coastal breeding grounds (Leaper et al. 2006, Meyer-
Gutbrod et al. 2015, Seyboth et al. 2016). The risk of threats to Southern Right Whales should not be assessed in isolation, and consideration must be given to existing and future processes and actions that may affect recovery of the Southern Right Whale (see section 3.9). Assessing cumulative effects from various threats in the context of species recovery fundamentally requires a management focus on reducing the current risk to a species. However, some threats operate over longer time scales (e.g., climate change) and there should be a focus on managing threats that can be reduced in the short term, such as anthropogenic underwater noise, entanglement and/or vessel strike while maintaining efforts to reduce impacts from long-term threats such as climate change.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
58
4 Vision, objectives, and targets
Long-term recovery vision
The long-term vision for the recovery of the Australian Southern Right Whale is that the population has increased in size to a level that the conservation status has improved, and the species no longer qualifies for listing as threatened under any of the EPBC Act listing criteria.

Due to intense historical exploitation of Southern Right Whales and the species life history characteristics, population recovery to, or near, pre-exploitation levels is likely to be a long process (i.e., multi-decadal). As a result, achieving the long-term vision for Southern Right
Whales utilising Australian waters is unlikely during the ten-year life of this plan.

Interim recovery objectives and targets
Recognising the long-term Recovery Plan vision is unlikely to be achieved during the life of this plan, five interim recovery objectives have been set for the period covered by the plan. These objectives will be achieved by implementing the actions set out in this Recovery Plan to minimise threats while protecting the species’ habitat, adequately monitoring recovery, generating new knowledge to guide recovery, and increasing public awareness.

The first interim objective provides the context for the management and legal protection that underpins this Recovery Plan, whereas the second identifies the principles of ecologically sustainable development that should be applied when assessing risk from recognised and emerging anthropogenic threats to Southern Right Whales. The third and fourth interim recovery objectives assist in assessing the conservation status of Southern Right Whales against the EPBC Act threatened species listing criteria, and whether threats are reduced, and species recovery is subsequently being achieved. The fifth interim objective addresses supporting capability in achieving the Recovery Plan actions.

Interim objective 1: Current levels of Commonwealth and State legislative and management protection for Southern Right Whales are implemented, maintained, or improved so threats continue to be managed and reduced over the life of the plan.

Target 1.1: Domestic and international legislation, and other management agreements,
that support the recovery of Australian Southern Right Whales are maintained and,
where possible, strengthened.

Interim objective 2: Anthropogenic threats are managed in a manner consistent with ecologically sustainable development principles and do not impede the recovery of Southern
Right Whales.

Target 2.1: Robust and adaptive management principles are implemented to reduce
anthropogenic threats to Australian Southern Right Whales and anthropogenic activities
do not result in mortality, injury, or disturbance to biologically important behaviours.

Target 2.2: Management decisions are supported by high quality information and
scientific data, and high priority research areas identified in the Recovery Plan to deliver

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
59
this information are supported through national and/or state funding programs and
conservation planning.

Interim objective 3: The population demographics of the eastern and western Southern Right
Whale populations are monitored using robust methodology to demonstrate that the abundance, areas of occupancy, and habitat use of Southern Right Whales is increasing.

Target 3.1: The western and eastern populations of Southern Right Whales are
monitored to obtain reliable estimates of population abundance and determine trends.

Target 3.2: An annual increase in abundance is recorded for Southern Right Whales in
the western population range at, or near, a maximum biological rate of increase of 6-7%.

Target 3.3: An increase in the abundance and habitat occupancy of the eastern
population is recorded, including an increase in the number and/or size of reproductive
BIAs.

Target 3.4: Population dynamics, including demographics, distribution, residency, and
coastal movement across the species range are quantified to assess change.

Interim objective 4: The population structure of Southern Right Whales in Australian waters is clearly characterised, including the level of interchange of individuals, to evaluate the degree to which the western and eastern populations are separate populations.

Target 4.1: The population structure of the western and eastern populations is
characterised to the extent that the degree of genetic separation can be evaluated.

Target 4.2: Migratory paths from foraging grounds to coastal reproductive areas is
determined and the degree of mixing in migration BIAs by the western and eastern
populations is known to inform population structure.

Interim objective 5: Capability of Indigenous Australian, research, citizen science and general community groups is improved to assist in addressing recovery actions of Southern Right
Whales in Australia.

Target 5.1: Improve recognition, awareness and understanding of Indigenous
Australians cultural connections with Southern Right Whales, and aspirations related to
monitoring, conservation, and management of Southern Right Whales.

Target 5.2: Improve communication and partnerships with Traditional Owner groups,
research institutions, citizen science groups and public to increase partnerships,
collaboration and equal benefit sharing of research.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
60
5 Recovery Actions
To achieve the long-term vision, it is necessary to meet the interim recovery objectives and implement the actions set out in this Recovery Plan. These actions aim to minimise threats while protecting and enhancing the species’ habitat throughout its range, adequately monitoring the species recovery, generating new knowledge to guide recovery, and increasing public awareness.

This section prioritises activities that will assist recovery of Southern Right Whales and support achievement of the interim recovery objectives and their targets as outlined in section 4. It is expected that every action will be progressed or completed during the life of this plan. It is recognised that information on threats or species knowledge may change as new information becomes available, requiring change to some of the priorities listed in this plan. This may include the emergence of new threats or changes in relative risk of existing threats, due to increased knowledge about a threat. It could also be due to changes in biologically important areas, such as new emerging areas and areas of habitat critical to survival of the species. New information must be taken into consideration as it becomes available in the context of this plan. Where appropriate the Australian Government will work with key stakeholders in each area to develop implementation plans for groups of actions.

Recovery actions to be implemented
The following sections 4.1.1.a.i.5.1.1 and 4.1.1.a.i.5.1.2 4.1.1.a.i.5.1.2outline the key action areas identified to meet recovery targets, address threats, and the specific actions identified to support recovery of the species.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
61
5.1.1. Assess and address key threats
Action Area A1 Priority
Maintain, implement, and improve efficacy of current Very High legislative and management protection for Southern Right
Whales.
Action
1. Maintain, implement, and improve efficacy of existing legislation and management
arrangements (e.g., Managements Plans and Guidelines) as listed under section 1.3.
2. Maintain functional utility of management advice and actions through clear communication
among stakeholders.

Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8

Description
Australia should maintain its position promoting high levels of protection for Southern Right Whales domestically and in all relevant international agreements (see Section 1.3). All management decisions and supporting tools should continue to be informed by current and best available information, including published and peer-reviewed evidence, noting the precautionary principle where necessary. Decisions must consider the cumulative impacts of multiple pressures and resulting actions must not affect continued use of habitat critical to the survival of the species, or
Biologically Important Areas. All management actions should be informed by current information on
Southern Right Whale spatial and temporal distribution, BIAs, HCTS and current and emerging threats.
Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1) Australia continues to implement domestic legislation and management actions to protect
Southern Right Whales and actively promote appropriate protection for Southern Right Whales
in international bodies (e.g., IWC).
2) Management decisions are based on the best available published and peer-reviewed scientific
evidence.
Risks: There are inconsistent approaches for mitigating the impacts of threats to Southern Right
Whales and/or reduced level of communication between Commonwealth and State agencies with management and/or regulatory responsibilities. This risk may be mitigated by continuing communication between Commonwealth and State agencies and industry through annual or greater periodic meetings.
Likelihood of success: Moderate to High.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
62
Action Area A2 Priority
Address habitat degradation impacts from coastal and offshore Very High marine infrastructure developments within the species’ range.
Action
1. Coastal and offshore development actions are assessed according to principles of ecological
sustainable development to ensure the risk of injury and/or disturbance to Southern Right
Whales is minimised.
2. Baseline surveys and monitoring undertaken during activity implementation are conducted in
accordance with best practice standards and guidelines to ensure standardised datasets are
obtained and suitable to inform environmental management decision making that can reduce
the risk of threats to Southern Right Whales.
3. Current information on species’ occurrence, particularly in HCTS, BIAs, and historic high use
areas, are used to inform planning, assessment, and decision-making on marine infrastructure
development actions.

Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 3.8

Description
Actions related to marine infrastructure development can result in the degradation of HCTS for reproduction and the disturbance to Southern Right Whales in these areas that may disrupt key life history behaviours. Southern Right Whales demonstrate high site fidelity to important reproductive areas used for the critical biologically behaviours of mating, calving, and nursing. To minimise degradation of these habitats and ensure Southern Right Whales continue to utilise
HCTS, proposed actions need to consider habitat requirements of Southern Right Whales and BIAs at early stages of planning. Marine infrastructure development projects should have effective measures and mitigation implemented to address identified threats to Southern Right Whales and primarily consider avoiding undertaking activities in HCTS during Southern Right Whale calving season. Cumulative impacts of development undertaken in HCTS should be considered in the assessment of activities to ensure there is continued use of HCTS and BIAs for Southern Right
Whales.

Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1. All levels of government and industry consider HCTS for Southern Right Whales at all stages of
project planning and assessment of development proposals.
2. The recovery of Southern Right Whales and their occupancy and residency within reproductive
BIAs is not adversely affected by coastal and offshore development, demonstrated by no long-
term decrease in current levels of use.
Risks: Marine development project assessments are made without the use of robust information that is available and the precautionary principle is not applied where information is lacking on habitat use by Southern Right Whales in areas of coastal development. There may be inconsistent approaches between Commonwealth and State government in assessing the impacts of development proposals to Southern Right Whales.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
63
Likelihood of success: Moderate.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
64
Action Area A3 Priority
Understand impacts of climate variability and anthropogenic Very High climate change on the biology of Southern Right Whales in
Australian waters.
Action
1. Continue to meet Australia’s international commitments to address causes of climate change,
including greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Continue to contribute via CCAMLR to the sustainable management of the krill fishery in
Antarctica to mediate potential reduction in prey resources due to climate change.
3. Support international collaborations in understanding the responses of Southern Right Whales to
climate variability and change through ongoing commitments to the IWC and CCAMLR.
4. Increase understanding of the effects of anthropogenic climate change on environmental
conditions, including the impacts on prey availability in high latitude foraging areas and links
with Southern Right Whale reproductive success and health.
Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3, 4 3.1, 3.2, 3.7
Description
Australia’s broader policy actions will attempt to combat climate change (e.g., through the National
Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy). There is a strong negative correlation between environmental conditions (e.g., sea surface temperature anomalies) at Southern Right Whale feeding grounds and female reproductive success. However, the specific processes and pathways that link the impacts of climate change on environmental conditions, prey availability, and whale reproductive success and health, are not understood to a level that allows an understanding of how these might affect the recovery of the species. Australia is a partner of the IWC-SORP research consortium and collaborates on the theme The right sentinel for climate change: linking foraging ground variability to population recovery in the Southern Right Whale. Continued engagement in this program will assist with better understanding of the linkages between foraging success, the energetics of individuals and breeding success, and climate change impacts. Australia contributes to
CCAMLR and the management of its fisheries and should continue engagement with CCAMLR to support the sustainable management of Antarctic fisheries, particularly those that target the prey resources of Southern Right Whales.
Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1. Australia continues its commitment to mitigate climate change and meet internationally agreed
targets.
2. An improved understanding of the links between climate change and reproductive success and
health of whales is obtained.
3. Australia retains a strong engagement with CCAMLR and the IWC to understand the linkages
between a changing environment, prey resources, and the recovery of Southern Right Whales.
4. Measures required to facilitate adaptive management of impacts from climate change are
better understood.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
65
Risks: Actions at the global scale are not sufficient to affect the current rate of climate change, which may negatively impact Southern Right Whale prey stocks and subsequent reproductive success of Southern Right Whales.
Likelihood of success: Moderate.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
66
Action Area A4 Priority
Reduce entanglements from commercial active or discarded Very High fishing gear throughout the species’ range in Australian waters.
Action
1. Promote and support commercial fishing industries, government, and research collaborations
that address alternate fishing techniques, gear modifications and/or management arrangements
(e.g., spatial and/or temporal area closures) to reduce the risk of entanglements from active or
discarded fishing gear.
2. Develop, update, and promote industry Codes of Practice, specific to each relevant fishery, to
address the threat of whale entanglement in fishery gear in BIAs and HCTS.
3. Improve standardised and coordinated recording and reporting of entanglements and data
sharing of fisheries interactions with whales between industry, government, and research
bodies.
Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3 3.2, 3.3
Description
Right whales are particularly susceptible to entanglements because of their coastal distribution and the resulting overlap with fisheries areas. Accurately assessing and spatially mapping areas of risk from entanglement are hindered by discrepancies and inconsistencies in the quality of data and data collection related to incidences of entanglement across jurisdictions. Codes of Practice for industry (e.g., rock lobster fisheries from Western Australia and Victoria) aimed at reducing entanglements and improving reporting of interactions will assist with better understanding the risk of entanglements and mitigating and responding at-sea to entanglements. Actions to achieve a reduction in marine debris, including lost or discarded fishing gear, entering the environment should be undertaken in accordance with the Threat Abatement Plan for the impacts of marine debris on the vertebrate wildlife of Australia’s coasts and oceans (2018). Australia should maintain engagement with international organisations, such as the IWC Global Whale Entanglement
Response Network, for fostering knowledge in the best practice of whale disentanglement.
Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1. Increased collaborations between the fishing industry, government, and research organisations
to address reductions in entanglements with fishing gear.
2. Codes of conduct developed by relevant state government agencies and relevant fishing
industries to minimise the risk of entanglement.
3. An improved reporting system for entanglements and data sharing of fisheries interactions
between government and industry and ongoing support for the maintenance of data
repositories.
Risks: Reduced levels of communication, understanding and collaboration between the commercial fishing industry, government and research organisations that hinder the effective development and implementation of Codes of Practice.
Likelihood of success: Moderate.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
67
Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
68
Action Area A5 Priority Priority
Assess and address impacts to Southern Right Whales from Very High anthropogenic underwater noise
Action
1. Improve baseline understanding of Southern Right Whale acoustic communication to better
assess potential impacts from anthropogenic underwater noise.
2. Actions within and adjacent to Southern Right Whale BIAs and HCTS should demonstrate that it
does not prevent any Southern Right Whale from utilising the area or cause injury (TTS and PTS)
and/or disturbance.
3. Ensure environmental assessments associated with underwater noise generating activities
include consideration of national policy (e.g., EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1) and guidelines
related to managing anthropogenic underwater noise and implement appropriate mitigation
measures to reduce risks to Southern Right Whales to the lowest possible level.
4. Quantify risks of anthropogenic underwater noise to Southern Right Whales, including
behavioural disturbance, changes to vocalisations, and physiological effects to whales.
5. Prioritise government/industry funding opportunities to support research to identify short and
long-term responses of Southern Right Whales to underwater noise.
6. Improve understanding and characterisation of marine soundscapes, including the application of
new technologies for data processing, within Southern Right Whale BIAs to facilitate
quantification of anthropogenic noise in the marine soundscape.
Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3 3.3, 3.4, 3.5
Description
The potential for impacts from anthropogenic underwater noise is greatest where noise-generating activities occur within or close to Southern Right Whale reproductive BIAs. Within these areas whales demonstrate site fidelity, are resident for long periods (e.g., weeks to months) of time, young calves are present, and females are engaged in calving and nursing. The risks from anthropogenic underwater noise to Southern Right Whales need to be quantified, considered in environmental impact assessments in accordance with policy (e.g., EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1) and guidelines, and appropriate mitigation measures implemented to reduce the risks within BIAs.
To ensure the risks of disturbance and injury to Southern Right Whales associated with anthropogenic sources of underwater noise are minimised, there is need for improved understanding of the levels of underwater noise that individual whales are exposed to and their behavioural and physiological responses. There is also need for a better understanding of the overlap between Southern Right Whale BIAs and potential sources of significant anthropogenic underwater noise. Currently, little is known on the direct pathways of impact to Southern Right
Whales from anthropogenic noise and what long-term effects and cumulative exposure may have on their behaviour, health, and life history traits. A precautionary approach should be applied where relevant, to the management of activities proposed to occur in or adjacent to designated HCTS and
BIAs.
Within the life of this plan
Measure of success

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
69
1. Activities that generate underwater noise and the risks they pose to Southern Right Whales are
assessed in accordance with relevant policy and guidelines, and mitigation measures are
implemented to minimise the potential for disruption and displacement from BIAs and HCTS to
an acceptable level.
2. An improved understanding of the exposure and behavioural responses to impulsive and non-
impulsive anthropogenic noise.
Risks: There are difficulties in assessing both short and long-term impacts of anthropogenic noise on
Southern Right Whales and there is potential that short-term effects will not inform the long-term effects on health, habitat occupancy, and life history traits (i.e., calving rates).
Likelihood of success: Moderate.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
70
Action Area A6 Priority

Manage, minimise, and mitigate the threat of vessel strike within Very High
Southern Right Whale BIAs and HCTS.
Action
1. Assess risk of vessel strike to Southern Right Whales in BIAs.
2. Improve understanding of the behavioural response of Southern Right Whales in close vicinity
to vessels (e.g., type, number, distance) in BIAs to inform risk assessments of vessel strike.
3. Ensure environmental impact assessments and associated plans consider and quantify the risk
of vessel strike and associated potential cumulative risks in BIAs.
4. Undertake a review of the National Strategy for Reducing Vessel Strike on Cetaceans and other
Marine Megafauna 2017 and update if necessary.
5. Ensure all vessel strike incidents are reported in the National Ship Strike Database managed
through the Australian Marine Mammal Centre, Australian Antarctic Division.
Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3 3.3, 3.4, 3.5
Description
Vessel strike is demonstrated to have a significant impact on small recovering right whale populations in other areas (e.g., North Atlantic Right Whale). There have been reported vessel strikes of Southern Right Whales in Australian waters and individuals have been observed with evidence of vessel strikes. Although, there is still a lack of understanding of the extent that vessel collisions occur and that vessels cause behavioural disturbance. Detection and subsequent reporting are still potential issues that hinder an understanding of the extent of risk to Southern
Right Whales by vessel strike. The National Strategy for Reducing Vessel Strike on Cetaceans and other Marine Megafauna 2017 outlines several objectives and actions for reducing vessel strike injury and/or mortality. Reviewing the applicability and effectiveness of this strategy and updating the objectives, if necessary, would assist in ensuring the strategy provides relevant guidance on understanding and reducing the risk of vessel strike and associated impacts on Southern Right
Whales.
Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1. Improved reporting of vessel strikes to the National Ship Strike Database.
2. Implementation of effective management of vessels in BIAs and HCTS to minimise the risk
from vessel strike.
3. Review and update, if necessary, of the National Strategy for Reducing Vessel Strike on
Cetaceans and other Marine Megafauna.
Risks: Changes in occupancy of Southern Right Whales in new and/or expanding reproductive areas and vessel densities in these areas may occur at a rate that inhibits assessment of available information to inform conservation planning in a time effective manner. Vessel strikes with
Southern Right Whales are not observed and/or reported.
Likelihood of success: Moderate.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
71
5.1.2. Measure recovery
Action Area B1 Priority
Measure and monitor population recovery of the western and Very High eastern Southern Right Whale populations.
Action
1. Maintain long-term annual monitoring programs of the western population across its range
that are capable of measuring and evaluating population recovery, including continuance of
aerial surveys and photo-identification.
2. Establish effective monitoring techniques for the eastern population and implement a targeted
long-term monitoring program capable of measuring and evaluating population recovery.
3. Characterise, measure, and monitor the biology of Southern Right Whales (i.e., fitness related
traits) to evaluate factors that might influence population recovery, including supporting the
development of new technologies to facilitate such characterisation.
4. Prioritise long-term monitoring programs for the western and eastern populations within
national and/or state threatened species funding programs and industry offsets funding.
5. Enable sharing and exchange of information required for monitoring the population recovery of
Southern Right Whales through support for national databases (e.g., Australian Right Whale
Photo Identification Catalogue) and data processing (e.g., automated image matching).
Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3, 4 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8
Description
Long-term monitoring is required to understand ongoing population trends and recovery trajectories of Southern Right Whales, including expansion of spatial distribution and occupancy of coastal habitat within Australian waters. Specifically, a targeted long-term monitoring program needs to be established for the eastern population to provide information required for establishing recovery rates for this population. To date, most data from the eastern population has been opportunistic citizen science monitoring data. Effort should focus on research that determines environmental influences and impacts from anthropogenic activities on important biological rates for the species that can affect population recovery. New technologies and methods should explore to support effective, efficient, and sustained approaches to the long-term monitoring of both populations, particularly where they can be utilised to expand existing collection, utilisation, and delivery of information.
Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1. The western and eastern populations are monitored to provide reliable population estimates,
demographic data (e.g., calving rates, movement, habitat occupancy) and recovery rates.
Risks: Long-term monitoring programs may not be financially supported, which may result in gaps in information needed to establish the status of Southern Right Whales.
Likelihood of success: Moderate to high.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
72
Action Area B2 Priority
Characterise the population structure of the western and Very High eastern Southern Right Whale populations.
Action
1. Characterise the population structure and degree of connectivity between the Australian
western and eastern populations and Southern Right Whales in New Zealand waters using
multiple approaches (e.g., photo-identification, molecular and biochemical methodologies).
2. Quantify the spatial and temporal interchange and intra-season coastal movement of
individuals between the western and eastern population regions.
Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3, 4 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8
Description
Southern Right Whales that occur seasonally off the Australian coast are recognised as constituting two populations (the western and eastern) based on genetic differentiation, population size and varying rates of population increase. There is some evidence that whales from each population are mixing on shared migratory corridors as they move from summer foraging grounds to winter breeding grounds. Greater understanding of the connectivity and degree of interchange of individuals between the two populations is needed to evaluate population abundance estimates of each population, particularly as there is a risk that estimates for the eastern population may incorporate individuals from the western population to an unknown degree. Further improved understanding of the genetic connectivity of the eastern population with breeding areas in New
Zealand is also needed for better evaluating recovery trajectories, repopulation of historical habitats, and factors that might be currently limiting recovery of this population.
Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1. The population structure of Australian Southern Right Whales is characterised to the extent
that the degree of genetic and reproductive isolation of the western and eastern populations
are determined.
Risks: Contemporary samples that would facilitate the establishment of this information are not collected during the life of the plan, and population structure that enhances current understanding is not achieved. Research may be initiated, yet not completed, during the life of this Recovery Plan.
Likelihood of success: Moderate.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
73
Action Area B3 Priority
Determine offshore distribution and migratory paths for the High western and eastern Southern Right Whale populations.
Action
1. Spatially identify and map migratory pathways and movement between high latitude foraging
grounds and coastal breeding areas.
2. Review and update biologically important area maps as new information becomes available.
3. Support international collaborations (e.g., IWC-SORP) that facilitate improved understanding of
distribution and migrations.
Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
1, 2, 3, 4 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8
Description
Southern Right Whales demonstrate strong fidelity to feeding and breeding areas and annually migrate to coastal winter grounds to mate, calve and rest. However, little is known about the summer feeding grounds and migratory routes between these coastal breeding areas and offshore foraging areas. There is a degree of movement and genetic mixing between the western and eastern population demonstrated by photo-identification and genetic data (Carroll et al. 2015,
Evans et al. 2021, Watson et al. 2021). Such movements indicate that connectivity of coastal habitat is important for Southern Right Whales and given connectivity may be disrupted temporarily or permanently by human activities, it is important conservation planning considers the importance of connecting coastal habitat as well as aggregation areas.
Australia is a partner of the IWC-SORP research consortium and collaborates on research themes such as The right sentinel for climate change: linking foraging ground variability to population recovery in the southern right whale that links southern right whale population dynamics and health with foraging ecology. Continued collaboration in this research consortium will support improved understanding of the factors influencing southern right whale recovery in Australian waters.
Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1. Indicative foraging areas used by whales that breed in Australian coastal waters and migratory
pathways to Australian coastal breeding areas are spatially identified and mapped.
Risks: A high level of mixing between Southern Right Whales that breed in Australian waters and nearby countries (i.e., New Zealand), and low sample sizes, hinder a comprehensive understanding of migratory movements and offshore distribution.
Likelihood of success: Moderate.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
74
Action Area B4 Priority
Support capability of Indigenous Australian, research, citizen High science and general community groups to assist management of Southern Right Whales.
Action
1. Improve recognition, awareness and understanding of Indigenous Australians cultural
connections with whales, including Southern Right Whales.
2. Assess the level of interest of indigenous groups in the monitoring, conservation, and
management of Southern Right Whales by consulting relevant indigenous groups and
organisations that occur within the species’ range.
3. Provide advice, education and support to research organisations, citizen science groups and
volunteers and community members regarding management of Southern Right Whales,
including providing a greater awareness of the Recovery Plan.
Recovery targets addressed Threats to be mitigated
3, 4, 5 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8
Description
Southern Right Whales spend their breeding season on the Sea Country of numerous Traditional
Owner groups, although the cultural and customary significance of the species across their range is not well documented. Further consultation with the Traditional Owners of these lands will benefit the conservation of the species by providing awareness of traditional knowledge and management practices on Country. It is important to obtain an understanding of the level of engagement in the monitoring, conservation, and management of Southern Right Whales by consulting relevant indigenous people and organisations that occur within the species’ range.

Within the life of this plan
Measure of success
1. Successful implementation of conservation management activities that require collaboration
and cooperation among Traditional Owner and various stakeholder groups.
2. High-level community support is achieved for actions to conserve the Southern Right Whale.
Risks: Ineffective communication and support for the engagement of Traditional Owner groups and the various necessary stakeholders results in unsuccessful implementation of conservation management activities.
Likelihood of success: Moderate.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
75
6 Implementation of Recovery Plan
Responsible agencies and partners
The Australian Government is responsible for managing and coordinating domestic policy on protected and threatened species and supporting management and protection of Australia’s protected species in international fora. The Australian Government collaborates with state and territories either directly, or through fora such as round table discussions, to assess the progress of implementing the Recovery Plan objectives and targets.

Many of the actions identified in this plan will fall under the jurisdiction of state and territory governments and may be undertaken by industry groups, research institutions, non-government organisations and the broader community, many of which are identified in section 1.3 under
‘Governance and coordination of the Recovery Plan’. As a result, while the plan may identify activities that need to be ongoing, a range of partners might undertake the mechanisms that support those activities.

Duration and cost of the recovery process
The recovery of Southern Right Whales in Australia is likely to take longer than the 10-year period of this plan. A plan should remain in place until both populations of Australian Southern
Right Whales have recovered to such an extent that the conservation status of the species no longer meets the criteria for being listed as a threatened species under the EPBC Act.

The cost of implementing this plan will be met through various direct and indirect funding providers. These include Commonwealth, state and territory governments, non-government organisations such as conservation groups and research organisations that prioritise whale conservation, and marine based industries. The key stakeholders who may be involved in the development, implementation and contribution to costs associated with implementing the
Southern Right Whale Recovery Plan are outlined in Section 1.3. The cost of implementing the actions outlined in this Recovery Plan are, already to a large extent, borne by the
Commonwealth, state and territory governments in the delivery of their core business, plans and programs, both domestically and internationally. State, Territory and Commonwealth governments also collaborate with universities and scientific institutions, industry, Traditional
Owner groups, business, NGOs, and communities in the delivery of their programs and research activities. Consequently, it is difficult to determine with any high degree of certainty what each action costs to be implemented, other than potentially specific research actions.

It is expected that Commonwealth and State government agencies will use this plan to assist in prioritising actions to protect the Southern Right Whale and enhance their recovery. Projects will be undertaken according to agency priorities and available resources, and available funding is aimed at assisting conservation planning and managing threats. Key mechanisms and indicative costings to achieve priority actions as outlined in this Recovery Plan are provided in
Table 6.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
76
Table 6 Key mechanisms and indicative costing to carry out some of the priority actions for Southern
Right Whales
SW population SE population
Actions Mechanisms to achieve actions
indicative costings indicative costings
A: Assessing and addressing threats

A1  Continue or improve existing national and Core government Core government
state legislative and management actions to business business
minimise anthropogenic threats.
A2  Manage anthropogenic activities to minimise Core government Core government
impact from threats. business business
A3  Australian Government climate change Core government Core government
adaptation initiatives. business business
 Government grants programs.
A4  State government programs to disentangle Core government Core government
whales. business business
 State government / industry partnerships to DPIRD: $750,000
implement gear modifications to reduce for a 3-year study
entanglement risk.
 State government / industry Codes of
Practice to reduce the risk of whale
entanglements in fishing gear.
 Australian Government Threat Abatement
Plan for the Impacts of Marine Debris on
Vertebrate Marine Life.
A5  Development of National Anthropogenic Core government Core government
Underwater Noise Guideline for the business business
management of anthropogenic noise for
marine mammals.
 Update EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1 –
Interaction between offshore seismic
exploration and whales 2008.
 Guidance to proponents about their legal
responsibilities under the EPBC Act to
minimise impacts from anthropogenic noise
to cetaceans.
 Research to assess impacts of anthropogenic $200,000 p.a. for 3- $200,000 p.a. for 3-
noise through behavioural responses, such as to-4-year study to-4-year study
behavioural disturbance.
A6  Update National Strategy for Reducing Vessel Core government Core government
Strike on Cetaceans and other Marine business business
Megafauna 2017.
 Research to assess behavioural responses of $100,000 p.a. for 2- $100,000 p.a. for 2-
Southern Right Whales to vessel interactions to-3-year study to-3-year study
in BIA’s.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
77
B: Enabling and measuring recovery

B1  Ongoing Commonwealth and state $200,000 p.a. for $100,000 p.a. for
government monitoring programs monitoring monitoring
 Ongoing research activity
 Government grant programs Core government Core government
business business
B2  Ongoing Commonwealth and state $100,000 p.a. for 2 $100,000 p.a. for 2
government monitoring programs - 3-year study - 3-year study
 Government grant programs Core government Core government
business business
B3  Ongoing Commonwealth and state $100,000 p.a. for 3- $100,000 p.a. for 3-
government monitoring programs year study year study
 National government and international Core government Core government
organisations grant programs business business
B4  Ongoing Commonwealth government Core government Core government
Indigenous Protected Areas Program business business
 Oral history project with Traditional Owner $75,000 p.a. for 2- $75,000 p.a. for 2-
groups to improve recognition, awareness year study year study
and understanding of Indigenous Australians
cultural connections with whales.

Reporting process and performance of the Recovery
Plan
Monitoring of the Recovery Plan will require tracking the progress of actions designed to improve management of the population and reduce threats. The progress of the Plan in achieving the management actions will be considered at a five-year (interim) review of the plan and at completion of the Plan, by evaluating the ‘Measure of success’ as outlined for each Action
Area in Section 5.1. A process for reporting and review is essential to determine how well the
Plan is contributing towards its overall long-term objectives and, specifically, how well it is meeting the interim objectives and their targets within the period of the Plan.

This review will identify:

1) Actions that have been completed.
2) Actions that are on track for completion; and
3) Actions that have not commenced.

The performance of this plan will be determined at its completion in 2033 and assessed by assigning one of the performance ratings in Table 7Error! Reference source not found.. The performance rating assigned will demonstrate how successful the plan has been in meeting interim recovery objectives and specifically the targets in Section 4.2, and will provide an indication of the degree of progress towards the long-term recovery objective.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
78
Table 7 Performance measures for the Southern Right Whale Recovery Plan
Performance rating for Targets Progress towards long-
the Plan term recovery objective

Successful All targets met Excellent
Moderately Successful Six of the nine targets met incl. 1.1 Sound
Moderately unsuccessful Five of the nine targets met incl. 1.1 Adequate
Unsuccessful Less than five targets met or target 1.1 Failure
not met

6.3.1. Data resources and data management
There are a range of data resources and data repositories that will aid informing and addressing management and research actions outlined in this Recovery Plan. These include, but are not limited to:

 The Protected Matters Search Tool – an online search tool with interactive mapping
functions that is valuable for decision-making and research and can be used to
identify if actions might impact the local environment.

 The National Conservation Values Atlas – provides information on BIAs for protected
species as well as a range of other national data on Australia's marine environment,
such as specific information on the location and area of important marine habitats,
ecological features, and other conservation values in the marine regions.

 National Marine Mammal Data Portal – database for stranding, sighting,
entanglement, and ship strike data, developed by the Australian Marine Mammal
Centre at the AAD. Reports related to these data can be submitted online through the
portal.

 Australasian Right Whale Photo-Identification Catalogue (ARWPIC) - a centralised
online platform developed to share images and sightings of Southern Right Whales. It
allows upload and matching of Southern Right Whale images and catalogues between
different regions for better understanding movements of Southern Right Whales and
connectivity of populations in the Australasia, and ultimately the Southern
Hemisphere. Researchers and the public can browse this catalogue and match their
own photographs of right whales to one in the catalogue.

 State government wildlife sightings databases – various wildlife sightings databases
are managed by State government to supports biodiversity and protected areas by
providing important wildlife information that underpins conservation policies,
programs, and management responses.

 Atlas of Living Australia (ALA) - a collaborative, digital, open infrastructure that pulls
together Australian biodiversity data from multiple sources, making it accessible and
reusable.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
79
Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
80
References
Allen SJ (2014). From Exploitation to Adoration: The Historical and Contemporary Contexts of
Human–Cetacean Interactions, in J. Higham, L. Bejder and R. Williams. Whale-Watching:
Sustainable Tourism and Ecological Management. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge. pp 31-47.
Au SY, Lee CM, Weinstein JE, van den Hurk P & Klaine SJ (2017) Trophic Transfer of
Microplastics in Aquatic Ecosystems: Identifying Critical Research Needs. Integrated
Environmental Assessment and Management 13, 3, 505-509. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1907.
Bannister JL (1986) Notes on Nineteenth Century Catches of Southern Right Whales (Eubalaena
Australis) Off the Southern Coasts of Western Australia. Report of the International
Whaling Commission, Special Issue 10.
Bannister JL (1986) Southern Right Whales: Status Off Australia from Twentieth-Century
‘Incidental’ Sightings and Aerial Survey. Report of the International Whaling Commission,
Special Issue 10.
Bannister JL (1990) Southern Right Whales Off Western Australia. Report of the International
Whaling Commission, Special Issue 12.
Bannister JL (2001) Status of Southern Right Whales (Eubalaena Australis) Off Australia. Journal
of Cetacean Research and Management Special Issue 2, 103–110. doi:
https://doi.org/10.47536/jcrm.vi.273.
Bannister JL, Burnell SR, Burton C & Kato H (1997) Right Whales Off Southern Australia: Direct
Evidence for a Link between Onshore Breeding Grounds and Offshore Probable Feeding
Grounds. International Whaling Commission document.
Bannister JL, Kemper CM & Warneke RM (1996) The Action Plan for Australian Cetaceans.
Bannister JL, Pastene LA & Burnell SR (1999) First Record of Movement of a Southern Right
Whale (Eubalaena Australis) between Warm Water Breeding Grounds and the Antarctic
Ocean, South of 60°S. Marine Mammal Science 15, 4, 1337-1342. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.1999.tb00895.x.
Bengtson Nash S (2011) Persistent Organic Pollutants in Antarctica: Current and Future
Research Priorities. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 13, 3, 497-504. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1039/C0EM00230E.
Best PB (2000) Coastal Distribution, Movements and Site Fidelity of Right Whales Eubalaena
Australis Off South Africa, 1969–1998. South African Journal of Marine Science 22, 1, 43-
55. doi: https://doi.org/10.2989/025776100784125618.
Brandão A, Best PB & Butterworth DS (2011) Monitoring the Recovery of the Southern Right
Whale in South African Waters. Paper SC/S11/RW18 presented to the IWC Scientific
Committee, May 2011.
Brandão A, Vermeulen E, Ross-Gillespie A, Findlay K & Butterworth DS (2018) Updated
Application of a Photo-Identification Based Assessment Model to Southern Right Whales in
South African Waters, Focusing on Interferences to Be Drawn from a Series of Appreciably
Lower Counts of Calving Females over 2015 to 2017. Report to the International Whaling
Commission document SC/67B/SH/22.
Brownell RL, Best PB & Prescott JH,(Ed). (1986) Right Whales: Past and Present Status.
Proceedings of the Workshop on the Status of Right Whales. Report of the International
Whaling Commission (Special Issue 10). Cambridge, UK.
Burgoyne I (2000) The Mirning: We Are the Whales : A Mirning-Kokatha Woman Recounts Life
before and after Dispossession, Magabala Books.
Burnell AF, Burnell SR & Tagg M (1990) Observations on an Apparent Mating Sequence in Three
Southern Right Whales, Eubalaena Australis (Cetacea: Balaenidae). Australian
Mammalogy 14, 33-34. doi: https://doi.org/10.1071/AM91006.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
81
Burnell SR (1999) The Population Biology of Southern Right Whales in Southern Australian
Waters. PhD, University of Sydney.
Burnell SR (2001) Aspects of the Reproductive Biology, Movements and Site Fidelity of Right
Whales Off Australia. J. Cetacean Res. Manage., 89-102. doi: 10.47536/jcrm.vi.272.
Burnell SR & Bryden MM (1997) Coastal Residence Periods and Reproductive Timing in
Southern Right Whales, Eubalaena Australis. Journal of Zoology 241, 4, 613-621. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05736.x.
Carman VG, Piola A, O'Brien TD, Tormosov DD & Acha EM (2019) Circumpolar Frontal Systems
as Potential Feeding Grounds of Southern Right Whales. Progress in Oceanography 176,
102123. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2019.102123.
Carroll E, Patenaude N, Alexander A, Steel D, Harcourt R, Childerhouse S, Smith S, Bannister J,
Constantine R & Baker CS (2011) Population Structure and Individual Movement of
Southern Right Whales around New Zealand and Australia. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 432, 257-268. doi: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09145
Carroll EL, Alderman R, Bannister JL, Bérubé M, Best PB, Boren L, Baker CS, Constantine R,
Findlay K, Harcourt R, Lemaire L, Palsbøll PJ, Patenaude NJ, Rowntree VJ, Seger J, Steel D,
Valenzuela LO, Watson M & Gaggiotti OE (2019) Incorporating Non-Equilibrium
Dynamics into Demographic History Inferences of a Migratory Marine Species. Heredity
122, 1, 53-68. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41437-018-0077-y.
Carroll EL, Baker CS, Watson M, Alderman R, Bannister J, Gaggiotti OE, Grocke DR, Patenaude N
& Harcourt R (2015) Cultural Traditions across a Migratory Network Shape the Genetic
Structure of Southern Right Whales around Australia and New Zealand. Scientific Reports
5. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16182.
Carroll EL, Fewster RM, Childerhouse SJ, Patenaude NJ, Boren L & Baker CS (2016) First Direct
Evidence for Natal Wintering Ground Fidelity and Estimate of Juvenile Survival in the
New Zealand Southern Right Whale Eubalaena Australis. PLOS ONE 11, 1, e0146590. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146590.
Carroll EL, Jackson JA, Paton D & Smith TD (2014) Two Intense Decades of 19th Century
Whaling Precipitated Rapid Decline of Right Whales around New Zealand and East
Australia. Plos One 9, 4, e93789. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093789.
Cates K, DeMaster DP, Brownell Jr RL, Silber G, Gende S, Leaper R, Ritter F & Panigada S (2017)
Strategic Plan to Mitigate the Impacts of Ship Strikes on Cetacean Populations: 2017-2020.
Chami R, Cosimano T, Fullenkamp C & Oztosun S (2019) "Nature’s Solution to Climate Change."
Finance & Development, 34-38, https://www.imf.org/-
/media/Files/Publications/Fandd/Article/2019/December/natures-solution-to-
climate-change-chami.ashx.
Charlton C (2017) Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena Australis) Population Demographics in
Southern Australia. PhD PhD thesis, Curtin University.
Charlton C, Marsh O, O’Shannessy B, McCauley R & Burnell S (2021) Long Term Southern Right
Whale Research at Head of Bight, South Australia 1991-2020. Report presented to the
68C IWC scientific committee (Southern Hemisphere Subcommittee) document
SC_68C_SH_11.
Charlton C, McCauley RD, Brownell Jr RL, Ward R, Bannister JL, Salgado Kent C & Burnell S
(2022) Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena Australis) Population Demographics at Major
Calving Ground Head of Bight, South Australia, 1991–2016. Aquatic Conservation: Marine
and Freshwater Ecosystems 32, 4, 671-686. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.3771.
Charlton C, Ward R, McCauley RD, Brownell Jr RL, Kent CS & Burnell S (2019) Southern Right
Whale (Eubalaena Australis), Seasonal Abundance and Distribution at Head of Bight,
South Australia. Aquatic Conservation 29, 4, 576-588. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.3032.
Charlton C, Ward R, McCauley RD, Brownell RL, Guggenheimer S, Kent CPS & Bannister JL
(2019) Southern Right Whales (Eubalaena Australis) Return to a Former Wintering
Calving Ground: Fowlers Bay, South Australia. Marine Mammal Science 35, 4, 1438-1462.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12611.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
82
Childerhouse S, Double, M. and Gales, N. . (2010) Satellite Tracking of Southern Right Whales
(Eubalaena Australis) at the Auckland Islands, New Zealand. . Report to the International
Whaling Commission document SC/62/BRG19.
Chittleborough RG (1956) Southern Right Whale in Australian Waters. Journal of Mammalogy 37,
3, 456–457. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/1376772.
Christiansen F, Rasmussen M & Lusseau D (2013) Whale Watching Disrupts Feeding Activities
of Minke Whales on a Feeding Ground. Marine Ecology Progress Series 478, 239-251. doi,
https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v478/p239-251/.
Christiansen F, Uhart MM, Bejder L, Clapham P, Ivashchenko Y, Tormosov D, Lewin N & Sironi M
(2022) Fetal Growth, Birth Size and Energetic Cost of Gestation in Southern Right
Whales. The Journal of Physiology n/a, n/a. doi: https://doi.org/10.1113/JP282351.
Christiansen F, Vivier F, Charlton C, Ward R, Amerson A, Burnell S & Bejder L (2018) Maternal
Body Size and Condition Determine Calf Growth Rates in Southern Right Whales. Marine
Ecology Progress Series 592, 267-281. doi: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12522.
Clark CW (1982) The Acoustic Repertoire of the Southern Right Whale, a Quantitative Analysis.
Animal Behaviour 30, 4, 1060-1071. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-
3472(82)80196-6.
Clarke PA (2001) The Significance of Whales to the Aboriginal People of Southern South
Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum 34, 1, 19-35. doi,
https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/40689701.
Conn PB & Silber GK (2013) Vessel Speed Restrictions Reduce Risk of Collision-Related
Mortality for North Atlantic Right Whales. Ecosphere 4, 4, 43. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/ES13-00004.1.
Cooke JG, Rowntree VJ & Payne R (2001) Estimates of Demographic Parameters for Southern
Right Whales (Eubalaena Australis) Observed Off Peninsula Valdes, Argentina. Journal of
Cetacean Research Management, 125-132. doi: https://doi.org/10.47536/jcrm.vi.297.
Cunningham KA & Mountain DC (2014) Simulated Masking of Right Whale Sounds by Shipping
Noise: Incorporating a Model of the Auditory Periphery. The Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America 135, 3, 1632-1640. doi: https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4864470.
Dakin WJ (1934) Whalemen Adventures: The Story of Whaling in Australian Waters and Other
Southern Seas Related Thereto, from the Days of Sails to Modern Times. Sydney, Angus and
Robertson, (revised edition 1938, reprint Sirius, 1963, Angus & Robertson, 1977).
Dawbin WH (1986) Right Whales Caught in Waters around South Eastern Australia and New
Zealand During the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries. Report of the International
Whaling Commission Special Issue 10.
Dedden AV & Rogers TL (2022) Stable Isotope Oscillations in Whale Baleen Are Linked to
Climate Cycles, Which May Reflect Changes in Feeding for Humpback and Southern Right
Whales in the Southern Hemisphere. Frontiers in Marine Science 9. doi:
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.832075.
Derville S, Torres LG, Newsome SD, Somes C, Valenzuela LO, Vander Zanden HB, Baker CS,
Bérubé M, Carlyon K, Childerhouse SJ, Constantine R, Dunshea G, Flores PAC,
Goldsworthy S, Graham B, Groch K, Gröcke D, Harcourt R, Hindell MA, Pavel Hulva,
Jennifer A. Jackson, Amy Kennedy, David Lundquist, Mackay A, Neveceralova P, Oliviera
L, Ott PH, Palsbøll PJ, Patenaude N, Rowntree V, Sironi M, Vermeuelen E, Watson M,
Zerbini AN & Carroll EL (Accepted). Long-Term Stability in the Foraging Range of a
Southern Ocean Predator between Eras of Whaling and Rapid Climate Change.
Proceedings of the National ACademy of Sciences of the United States of America.
Desforges J-P, Hall A, McConnell B, Rosing-Asvid A, Barber Jonathan L, Brownlow A, De Guise S,
Eulaers I, Jepson Paul D, Letcher Robert J, Levin M, Ross Peter S, Samarra F, Víkingson G,
Sonne C & Dietz R (2018) Predicting Global Killer Whale Population Collapse from Pcb
Pollution. Science 361, 6409, 1373-1376. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat1953.
Di Iorio L & Clark CW (2010) Exposure to Seismic Survey Alters Blue Whale Acoustic
Communication. Biology Letters 6, 1, 51-54. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0651.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
83
Donnelly BG (1967) Observations on the Mating Behaviour of the Southern Right Whale
Enbalaena Australis. South African Journal of Science 63, 5, 176. doi:
https://hdl.handle.net/10520/AJA00382353_3933.
Ellison WT, Southall BL, Clark CW & Frankel AS (2012) A New Context-Based Approach to
Assess Marine Mammal Behavioral Responses to Anthropogenic Sounds. Conservation
biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology 26, 1, 21-28. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01803.x.
Elwen SH & Best PB (2004) Environmental Factors Influencing the Distribution of Southern
Right Whales (Eubalaena Australis) on the South Coast of South Africa Ii: Within Bay
Distribution Marine Mammal Science 20, 3, 583-601. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2004.tb01181.x.
Erbe C (2002) Underwater Noise of Whale-Watching Boats and Potential Effects on Killer
Whales (Orcinus Orca), Based on an Acoustic Impact Model. Marine Mammal Science 18,
2, 394-418. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x.
Erbe C, Dähne M, Gordon J, Herata H, Houser DS, Koschinski S, Leaper R, McCauley R, Miller B,
Müller M, Murray A, Oswald JN, Scholik-Schlomer AR, Schuster M, Van Opzeeland IC &
Janik VM (2019) Managing the Effects of Noise from Ship Traffic, Seismic Surveying and
Construction on Marine Mammals in Antarctica. Frontiers in Marine Science 6. doi,
https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fmars.2019.00647.
Erbe C, Dunlop R & Dolman S (2018). Effects of Noise on Marine Mammals, in H. Slabbekorn, R.
J. Dooling, A. N. Popper and R. R. Fay. Effects of Anthropogenic Noise on Animals. Springer
Handbook of Auditory Research, New York, U.S.A. pp 277-309.
Erbe C, Marley SA, Schoeman RP, Smith JN, Trigg LE & Embling CB (2019) The Effects of Ship
Noise on Marine Mammals—a Review. Frontiers in Marine Science 6, 606. doi:
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00606.
Evans K, Charlton C, Townsend A, Watson M, Carroll E, Double M, Upston J, Carlyon K &
Alderman R (2021) Estimation of Population Abundance and Mixing of Southern Right
Whales in Australian and New Zealand Regions. Report to the National Environmental
Science Program, Marine Biodiversity Hub and CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere.
Faulkner RC, Farcas A & Merchant ND (2018) Guiding Principles for Assessing the Impact of
Underwater Noise. Journal of Applied Ecology 55, 6, 2531-2536. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13161.
Fields DM, Handegard NO, Dalen J, Eichner C, Malde K, Karlsen Ø, Skiftesvik AB, Durif CMF &
Browman HI (2019) Airgun Blasts Used in Marine Seismic Surveys Have Limited Effects
on Mortality, and No Sublethal Effects on Behaviour or Gene Expression, in the Copepod
Calanus Finmarchicus. ICES Journal of Marine Science 76, 7, 2033-2044. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsz126.
Gibbs M (2010) The Shore Whalers of Western Australia: Historical Archaeology of a Maritime
Frontier, Sydney University Press.
Gibbs M (2012) Whale Catches from 19th Century Shore Stations in Western Australia. Journal of
Cetacean Research and Management 12, 1, 129–135. doi.
Gill AB (2005) Offshore Renewable Energy: Ecological Implications of Generating Electricity in
the Coastal Zone. Journal of Applied Ecology 42, 4, 605-615. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01060.x.
Gill JCH (1966) Genesis of the Australian Whaling Industry: Its Development up to 1850. Journal
of the Royal Historical Society of Queensland 8, 1, 111-136. doi,
https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:212779.
Harcourt R, van der Hoop J, Kraus S & Carroll EL (2019) Future Directions in Eubalaena Spp.:
Comparative Research to Inform Conservation. Frontiers in Marine Science 5. doi:
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00530.
Helm RC, Costa DP, DeBruyn TD, O'Shea TJ, Wells RS & Williams TM (2014) Overview of Effects
of Oil Spills on Marine Mammals. Handbook of Oil Spill Science and Technology, 455-475.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118989982.ch18.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
84
Hildebrand JA (2009) Anthropogenic and Natural Sources of Ambient Noise in the Ocean. Marine
Ecological Progress Series 395, 5-20. doi: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08353.
How J, Coughran D, Smith J, Double M, Harrison J, McMath J, Hebiton BA & Denham A (2015)
Effectiveness of Mitigation Measures to Reduce Interactions between Commercial Fishing
Gear and Whales. FRDC Project No 2013/03. Fisheries Research Report No. 267.
Department of Fisheries, Western Australia.
How JR, de la Mare WK, Coughran DK, Double MC & de Lestang S (2021) Gear Modifications
Reduced Humpback Whale Entanglements in a Commercial Rock Lobster Fishery. Marine
Mammal Science 37, 3, 782-806. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12774.
Industries NSWDoP (2022) Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program 2021/22 Annual
Performance Report.
IWC (2001) Report of the Workshop on the Comprehensive Assessment of Right Whales: A
Worldwide Comparison. J. Cetacean Res. Manage.
IWC (2010) Report of the Workshop on Welfare Issues Associated with the Entanglement of Large
Whales. . IWC Document IWC/62/15.
IWC (2013) Report of the Iwc Workshop on the Assessment of Southern Right Whales. Journal of
Cetacean Research Management 14 (suppl.). doi.
Jackson JA, Patenaude NJ, Carroll EL & Baker CS (2008) How Few Whales Were There after
Whaling? Inference from Contemporary Mtdna Diversity. Molecular Ecology 17, 1, 236-
251. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03497.x.
Jefferson TA, Webber MA & Pitman RL (2015). Cetaceans, in T. A. Jefferson, M. A. Webber and R.
L. Pitman. Marine Mammals of the World (Second Edition). Academic Press, San Diego. pp
24-357.
Jefferson TA, Webber MA & Pitman RL (2015). Taxonomic Groupings above the Species Level, in
T. A. Jefferson, M. A. Webber and R. L. Pitman. Marine Mammals of the World (Second
Edition). Academic Press, San Diego. pp 17-23.
Jepson Paul D & Law Robin J (2016) Persistent Pollutants, Persistent Threats. Science 352, 6292,
1388-1389. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf9075.
Jones KC & de Voogt P (1999) Persistent Organic Pollutants (Pops): State of the Science.
Environmental Pollution 100, 1, 209-221. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-
7491(99)00098-6.
Jönsson KI (1997) Capital and Income Breeding as Alternative Tactics of Resource Use in
Reproduction. Oikos 78, 1, 57-66. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.521767.
Kato K (2015) Australia's Whaling Discourse: Global Norm, Green Consciousness and Identity.
Journal of Australian Studies 39, 4, 477-493. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1080/14443058.2015.1080176.
Kemper C, Coughran D, Warneke R, Pirzl R, Watson M, Gales R & Gibbs S (2008) Southern Right
Whale (Eubalaena Australis) Mortalities and Human Interaction in Australia, 1950-2006.
Journal of Cetacean Management and Research 10, 1, 1-8. doi.
Kemper CM, Steele-Collins E, Al-Humaidhi A, Segawa Fellowes T, Marsh O & Charlton C (2022)
Encounter Bay, South Australia, an Important Aggregation and Nursery Area for the
Southern Right Whale, Eubalaena Australis (Balaenidae: Cetacea). Transactions of the
Royal Society of South Australia, 1-21. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1080/03721426.2021.2018759.
Kenney RD (2018). Right Whales: Eubalaena Glacialis, E. Japonica, and E. Australis, in B. Würsig,
J. G. M. Thewissen and K. M. Kovacs. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (Third Edition).
Academic Press. pp 817-822.
Kiessling IL (2003) Finding Solutions: Derelict Fishing Gear and Other Marine Debris in Northern
Australia. Hobart: National Oceans Office.
Klein ES, Hill SL, Hinke JT, Phillips T & Watters GM (2018) Impacts of Rising Sea Temperature
on Krill Increase Risks for Predators in the Scotia Sea. PLOS ONE 13, 1, e0191011. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191011.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
85
Klinowska M (1990). Geomagnetic Orientation in Cetaceans: Behavioural Evidence, in J. A.
Thomas and R. A. Kastelein. Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans: Laboratory and Field Evidence.
Springer US, Boston, MA. pp 651-663.
Knowlton AR, Clark JS, Hamilton PK, Kraus SD, Pettis HM, Rolland RM & Schick RS (2022)
Fishing Gear Entanglement Threatens Recovery of Critically Endangered North Atlantic
Right Whales. Conservation Science and Practice n/a, n/a, e12736. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12736.
Lanyon JM & Janetzki H (2016) Mortalities of Southern Right Whales (Eubalaena Australis) in a
Subtropical Wintering Ground, Southeast Queensland. Aquatic Mammals 42, 4, 470-475.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.42.4.2016.470.
Leaper R, Cooke J, Trathan P, Reid K, Rowntree V & Payne R (2006) Global Climate Drives
Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena Australis) Population Dynamics. Biology Letters 2, 289
- 292. doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0431.
Ling JK & Needham DJ (1988) Final Report on Southern Right Whale Survey, South Australia,
1988. . Unpublished report to the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. .
Linnane A, McLeay L, McGarvey R & Jones A (2017) Industry-Supported Sampling Underpins
Temporal Management Policy Change in a Commercial Rock Lobster (Jasus Edwardsii)
Fishery. Journal of Shellfish Research 36, 2, 511-517. doi:
https://doi.org/10.2983/035.036.0222.
Lockyer C (1984) Review of Baleen Whales (Mysticeti) Reproduction and Implications for
Management. Report of the International Whaling Commission Special Issue 6).
Lockyer C (2007) All Creatures Great and Smaller: A Study in Cetacean Life History Energetics.
Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 87, 4, 1035-1045. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315407054720.
Luksenburg J & Parsons E (2009) The Effects of Aircraft on Cetaceans: Implications for Aerial
Whalewatching. Report to the International Whaling Commission. Document number
SC/61/WW2.
Lundquist D, Sironi M, Würsig B, Rowntree V, Martino J & Lundquist L (2013) Response of
Southern Right Whales to Simulated Swim-with-Whale Tourism at Península Valdés,
Argentina. Marine Mammal Science 29, 2, E24-E45. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-
7692.2012.00583.x.
Macfadyen G, Huntington T & Cappell R (2009) Abandoned, Lost or Otherwise Discarded Fishing
Gear. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies, No. 185; FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture
Technical Paper, No. 523, Rome.
Mackay AI, Bailleul F, Carroll EL, Andrews-Goff V, Baker CS, Bannister J, Boren L, Carlyon K,
Donnelly DM, Double M, Goldsworthy SD, Harcourt R, Holman D, Lowther A, Parra GJ &
Childerhouse SJ (2020) Satellite Derived Offshore Migratory Movements of Southern
Right Whales (Eubalaena Australis) from Australian and New Zealand Wintering
Grounds. PLOS ONE 15, 5, e0231577. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231577.
Matkin CO, Saulitis EL, Ellis GM, Olesiuk P & Rice SD (2008) Ongoing Population-Level Impacts
on Killer Whales Orcinus Orca Following the ‘Exxon Valdez’ Oil Spill in
Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series 356, 269-281. doi,
https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v356/p269-281/.
McBride MM, Schram Stokke O, Renner AHH, Krafft BA, Bergstad OA, Biuw M, Lowther AD &
Stiansen JE (2021) Antarctic Krill Euphausia Superba: Spatial Distribution, Abundance,
and Management of Fisheries in a Changing Climate. Marine Ecology Progress Series 668,
185-214. doi, https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v668/p185-214/.
McCauley RD, Day RD, Swadling KM, Fitzgibbon QP, Watson RA & Semmens JM (2017) Widely
Used Marine Seismic Survey Air Gun Operations Negatively Impact Zooplankton. Nature
Ecology & Evolution 1, 7, 0195. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0195.
McCordic JA, Root-Gutteridge H, Cusano DA, Denes SL & Parks SE (2016) Calls of North Atlantic
Right Whales Eubalaena Glacialis Contain Information on Individual Identity and Age

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
86
Class. Endangered Species Research 30, 157-169. doi, https://www.int-
res.com/abstracts/esr/v30/p157-169/.
McPhee DP, Blount C, Lincoln Smith MP & Peddemors VM (2021) A Comparison of Alternative
Systems to Catch and Kill for Mitigating Unprovoked Shark Bite on Bathers or Surfers at
Ocean Beaches. Ocean & Coastal Management 201, 105492. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105492.
MEPC (2021) Information on Recent Outcomes Regarding Minimizing Ship Strikes to Cetaceans,
Submitted by the International Whaling Commission Mepc 69/10/3.
Metcalfe C, Koenig B, Metcalfe T, Paterson G & Sears R (2004) Intra- and Inter-Species
Differences in Persistent Organic Contaminants in the Blubber of Blue Whales and
Humpback Whales from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Marine Environmental
Research 57, 4, 245-260. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2003.08.003.
Meyer-Gutbrod EL, Greene CH, Sullivan PJ & Pershing AJ (2015) Climate-Associated Changes in
Prey Availability Drive Reproductive Dynamics of the North Atlantic Right Whale
Population. Marine Ecology Progress Series 535, 243-258. doi, https://www.int-
res.com/abstracts/meps/v535/p243-258/.
Miksis-Olds JL, Bradley DL & Maggie Niu X (2013) Decadal Trends in Indian Ocean Ambient
Sound. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 134, 5, 3464-3475. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4821537.
Miksis-Olds JL & Nichols SM (2016) Is Low Frequency Ocean Sound Increasing Globally? The
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 139, 1, 501-511. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4938237.
Moore MJ, Rowles TK, Fauquier DA, Baker JD, Biedron I, Durban JW, Hamilton PK, Henry AG,
Knowlton AR, McLellan WA, Miller CA, Pace RM, III, Pettis HM, Raverty S, Rolland RM,
Schick RS, Sharp SM, Smith CR, Thomas L, van der Hoop JM & Ziccardi MH (2021)
Review Assessing North Atlantic Right Whale Health: Threats, and Development of Tools
Critical for Conservation of the Species. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 143, 205-226. doi,
https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/dao/v143/p205-226/.
Murphy EJ, Thorpe SE, Tarling GA, Watkins JL, Fielding S & Underwood P (2017) Restricted
Regions of Enhanced Growth of Antarctic Krill in the Circumpolar Southern Ocean.
Scientific Reports 7, 1, 6963. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-07205-9.
Myers HJ, Moore MJ, Baumgartner MF, Brillant SW, Katona SK, Knowlton AR, Morissette L, Pettis
HM, Shester G & Werner TB (2019) Ropeless Fishing to Prevent Large Whale
Entanglements: Ropeless Consortium Report. Marine Policy 107, 103587. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103587.
Nash M (2003) The Bay Whalers : Tasmania's Shore-Based Whaling Industry / Michael Nash.
Woden, A.C.T, Navarine Publishing.
National Academies of Sciences E, and Medicine (2017) Approaches to Understanding the
Cumulative Effects of Stressors on Marine Mammals. Washington DC, National Academies
Press.
New LF, Hall AJ, Harcourt R, Kaufman G, Parsons ECM, Pearson HC, Cosentino AM & Schick RS
(2015) The Modelling and Assessment of Whale-Watching Impacts. Ocean & Coastal
Management 115, 10-16. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.04.006.
Nicol S, Foster J & Kawaguchi S (2012) The Fishery for Antarctic Krill – Recent Developments.
Fish and Fisheries 13, 1, 30-40. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00406.x.
Nielsen MLK, Bejder L, Videsen SKA, Christiansen F & Madsen PT (2019) Acoustic Crypsis in
Southern Right Whale Mother-Calf Pairs: Infrequent, Low-Output Calls to Avoid
Predation? J Exp Biol 222, Pt 13. doi: https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.190728.
Nielsen MLK, Sprogis KR, Bejder L, Madsen PT & Christiansen F (2019) Behavioural
Development in Southern Right Whale Calves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 629, 219-
234. doi: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps13125.
Nowacek DP, Thorne LH, Johnston DW & Tyack PL (2007) Responses of Cetaceans to
Anthropogenic Noise. Mammal Review 37, 2, 81-115. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2907.2007.00104.x.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
87
O’Connor S, Campbell R, Cortez H & Knowles T (2009) Whale Watching Worldwide: Tourism
Numbers, Expenditures and Expanding Economic Benefits, a Special Report from the
International Fund for Animal Welfare. Yarmouth MA, USA, prepared by Economists at
Large.
Parks SE, Brown MW, Conger LA, Hamilton PK, Knowlton AR, Kraus SD, Slay CK & Tyack PL
(2007) Occurrence, Composition, and Potential Functions of North Atlantic Right Whale
(Eubalaena Glacialis) Surface Active Groups. Marine Mammal Science 23, 4, 868-887 doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2007.00154.x.
Parks SE, Cusano DA, Van Parijs SM & Nowacek DP (2019) Acoustic Crypsis in Communication
by North Atlantic Right Whale Mother–Calf Pairs on the Calving Grounds. Biology Letters
15, 10, 20190485. doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0485.
Parks SE, Johnson M, Nowacek D & Tyack PL (2010) Individual Right Whales Call Louder in
Increased Environmental Noise. Biology Letters. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2010.0451.
Parks SE, Ketten DR, O'Malley JT & Arruda J (2007) Anatomical Predictions of Hearing in the
North Atlantic Right Whale. The Anatomical Record 290, 6, 734-744. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.20527.
Parks SE, Searby A, Célérier A, Johnson MP, Nowacek DP & Tyack PL (2011) Sound Production
Behavior of Individual North Atlantic Right Whales: Implications for Passive Acoustic
Monitoring. Endangered Species Research 15, 1, 63-76. doi, https://www.int-
res.com/abstracts/esr/v15/n1/p63-76/.
Parks SE & Tyack PL (2005) Sound Production by North Atlantic Right Whales (Eubalaena
Glacialis) in Surface Active Groups. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 117, 5,
3297-3306. doi: https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1882946.
Parsons ECM (2012) The Negative Impacts of Whale-Watching. Journal of Marine Biology 2012,
807294. doi: https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/807294.
Paterson A & Wilson C (2019) Ngarrindjeri Whaling Narratives and Reconciliation at Encounter
Bay, South Australia. RCC Perspectives, 5, 91– 97. doi:
https://doi.org/10.5282/rcc/8967.
Peel D, Erbe C, Smith JN, Parsons MJG, Duncan AJ, Schoeman RP & Meekan M (2021)
Characterising Anthropogenic Underwater Noise to Improve Understanding and
Management of Acoustic Impacts to Marine Wildlife. Final Report to the National
Environmental Science Program, Marine Biodiversity Hub. CSIRO.
Peel D, Smith JN & Childerhouse S (2018) Vessel Strike of Whales in Australia: The Challenges of
Analysis of Historical Incident Data. Frontiers in Marine Science 5, 69, 69. doi:
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00069.
Pirotta E, Thomas L, Costa DP, Hall AJ, Harris CM, Harwood J, Kraus SD, Miller PJ, Moore M,
Photopoulou T, Rolland R, Schwacke L, Simmons SE, Southall BL & Tyack P (2022)
Understanding the Combined Effects of Multiple Stressors: A New Perspective on a
Longstanding Challenge. Science of The Total Environment, 153322. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153322.
Pirzl R (2008) Spatial Ecology of E. Australis: Habitat Selection at Multiple Scales. Ph.D, Deakin
University.
Pirzl R, Patenaude NJ, Burnell S & Bannister J (2009) Movements of Southern Right Whales
(Eubalaena Australis) between Australian and Subantarctic New Zealand Populations.
Marine Mammal Science 25, 2, 455-461. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-
7692.2008.00276.x.
Pirzl R, Thiele D, Bannister JL & Burnell SR (2008) Enso and Sam Affect Reproductive Output in
Southern Right Whales Report to the Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and
the Arts, Canberra.
Rayment W, Dawson S & Webster T (2015) Breeding Status Affects Fine-Scale Habitat Selection
of Southern Right Whales on Their Wintering Grounds. Journal of Biogeography 42, 3,
463-474. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12443.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
88
Reeves RR & Smith TD (2003) A Taxonomy of World Whaling : Operations, Eras, and Sources.
doi, https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/3347.
Richardson A, Matear R & Lenton A (2017) Potential Impacts on Zooplankton of Seismic Surveys.
CSIRO.
Richardson WJ, Greene CRJ, Malme CI & Thomson DH (1995) Marine Mammals and Noise. San
Diego, London, Academic Press.
Riekkola L, Childerhouse SJ, Zerbini A, Andrews-Goff V, Constantine R, Cole R, Stuck E & Carroll
EL (2021) An Unexpected Journey: Tracking Southern Right Whales from the New Zealand
Subantarctic Wintering Grounds. Report to the International Whaling Commission
document SC/68C/SH/02 Rev 1.
Ritter F & Panigada S (2019). Collisions of Vessels with Cetaceans—the Underestimated Threat,
in C. Sheppard. World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition). Academic
Press. pp 531-547.
Rolland RM, Parks SE, Hunt KE, Castellote M, Corkeron PJ, Nowacek DP, Wasser SK & Kraus SD
(2012) Evidence That Ship Noise Increases Stress in Right Whales. Proceedings of the
Royal Society B 279, 2363-2368. doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.2429.
Roman L, Schuyler Q, Wilcox C & Hardesty BD (2021) Plastic Pollution Is Killing Marine
Megafauna, but How Do We Prioritize Policies to Reduce Mortality? Conservation Letters
14, 2, e12781. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12781.
Rosenbaum HC, Brownell Jr RL, Brown MW, Schaeff C, Portway V, White BN, Malik S, Pastene LA,
Patenaude NJ, Baker CS, Goto M, Best PB, Clapham PJ, Hamilton P, Moore M, Payne R,
Rowntree V, Tynan CT, Bannister JL & Desalle R (2000) World-Wide Genetic
Differentiation of Eubalaena: Questioning the Number of Right Whale Species. Molecular
Ecology 9, 11, 1793-1802. doi: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.01066.x.
Salgado Kent CP, Burton C, Giroud M & Elsdon B (2022) A Photo-Identification Study of Southern
Right Whales to Update Aggregation Area Classification in the Southwest of Australia.
Report to the National Environmental Science Program, Edith Cowan University.
Schlingermann M, Berrow S, Craig D, McHugh B, Marrinan M, O'Brien J, O'Connor I, Mudzatsi E &
White P (2020) High Concentrations of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Adult Killer
Whales (Orcinus Orca) and a Foetus Stranded in Ireland. Mar Pollut Bull 151, 110699.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110699.
Seyboth E, Groch KR, Dalla Rosa L, Reid K, Flores PAC & Secchi ER (2016) Southern Right Whale
(Eubalaena Australis) Reproductive Success Is Influenced by Krill (Euphausia Superba)
Density and Climate. Scientific Reports 6, 28205. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28205.
Smith JN, Allen S, Jenner C, Jenner M, Bateman J, Klein T, Passeck N-j, Sprogis K, Double M,
Franklin W, Franklin T, Stack S, Watson M & Charlton C (2022). Southern Right Whales in
Low Latitudes of Australia; Reoccupation by a Recovering Whale Population.
Smith JN, Double M, Kelly N, Charlton C & Bannister J (2022) Relative Abundance of the ‘Western’
Population of Southern Right Whales from an Aerial Survey Off Southern Australia: Final
Report on 2021 Survey. Report to the National Environmental Science Program. Murdoch
University (Lead organisation). .
Smith TD, Reeves RR, Josephson EA & Lund JN (2012) Spatial and Seasonal Distribution of
American Whaling and Whales in the Age of Sail. Plos One 7, 4. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034905.
Smyth D (1994) Understanding Country: The Importance of Land and Sea in Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Societies. Canberra, Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation.
Southall BL, Bowles AE, Ellison WT, Finneran JJ, Gentry RL, Greene Jr. CR, Kastak D, Ketten DR,
Miller JH, Nachtigall PE, Richardson WJ, Thomas JA & Tyack PL (2007) Marine Mammal
Noise Exposure Criteria: Initial Scientific Recommendations. Aquatic Mammals 33, 4, 1 -
521. doi: https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.33.4.2007.411.
Southall BL, Finneran JJ, Rcichmuth C, Nachtigall PE, Ketten DR, Bowles AE, Ellison WT, Nowacek
DP & Tyack PL (2019) Marine Mammal Noise Exposure Criteria: Updated Scientific

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
89
Recommendations for Residual Hearing Effects. Aquatic Mammals 45, 2, 125-232. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.45.2.2019.125.
Sparling CE, Seitz AC, Masden E & Smith K (2020). Collision Risk for Animals around Turbines,
in A. E. C. a. L. G. Hemery. Oes-Environmental 2020 State of the Science Report:
Environmental Effects of Marine Renewable Energy Development around the World. pp 29-
65.
Sprogis KR, Bejder L, Hanf D & Christiansen F (2020) Behavioural Responses of Migrating
Humpback Whales to Swim-with-Whale Activities in the Ningaloo Marine Park, Western
Australia. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 522, 151254. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2019.151254.
Stack SH, Sprogis KR, Olson GL, Sullivan FA, Machernis AF & Currie JJ (2021) The Behavioural
Impacts of Commercial Swimming with Whale Tours on Humpback Whales (Megaptera
Novaeangliae) in Hervey Bay, Australia. Frontiers in Marine Science 8. doi,
https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fmars.2021.696136.
Stamation K, Watson M, Moloney P, Charlton C & Bannister J (2020) Population Estimate and
Rate of Increase of Southern Right Whales Eubalaena Australis in Southeastern Australia.
Endangered Species Research 41, 373-383. doi: https://doi.org/10.3354/esr01031.
Stewart JD, Durban JW, Europe H, Fearnbach H, Hamilton PK, Knowlton AR, Lynn MS, Miller CA,
Perryman WL, Tao BWH & Moore MJ (2022) Larger Females Have More Calves:
Influence of Maternal Body Length on Fecundity in North Atlantic Right Whales. Marine
Ecology Progress Series 689, 179-189. doi: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps14040.
Stewart JD, Durban JW, Knowlton AR, Lynn MS, Fearnbach H, Barbaro J, Perryman WL, Miller CA
& Moore MJ (2021) Decreasing Body Lengths in North Atlantic Right Whales. Current
Biology 31, 14, 3174-3179.e3173. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.04.067.
Stöber U & Thomsen F (2021) How Could Operational Underwater Sound from Future Offshore
Wind Turbines Impact Marine Life? The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 149,
3, 1791-1795. doi: https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0003760.
Suter KD (1982) Australia's New Whaling Policy: Formulation and Implementation. Marine
Policy 6, 4, 287-302. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-597X(82)90004-5.
Taniguchi S, Colabuono FI, Dalla Rosa L, Secchi ER, da Silva J, Maia DA & Montone RC (2019)
Persistent Organic Pollutants in Blubber of Fin Whales (Balaenoptera Physalus) from the
Southern Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 145, 148-152. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.05.045.
Taxonomy Co (2022). List of Marine Mammal Species and Subspecies, Society for Marine
Mammalogy, www.marinemammalscience.org, consulted on 29/06/2022.
Tennessen JB & Parks SE (2016) Acoustic Propagation Modeling Indicates Vocal Compensation
in Noise Improves Communication Range for North Atlantic Right Whales. Endangered
Species Research 30, 225-237. doi, https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/esr/v30/p225-
237/.
Tormosov DD, Mikhaliev YA, Best PB, Zemsky VA, Sekiguchi K & Brownell RL (1998) Soviet
Catches of Southern Right Whales Eubalaena Australis, 1951-1971. Biological Data and
Conservation Implications. Biological Conservation 86, 2, 185-197. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00008-1.
Torres LG, Smith TD, Sutton P, MacDiarmid A, Bannister J & Miyashita T (2013) From
Exploitation to Conservation: Habitat Models Using Whaling Data Predict Distribution
Patterns and Threat Exposure of an Endangered Whale. Diversity and Distributions 19, 9,
1138-1152. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12069.
Tougaard J, Hermannsen L & Madsen PT (2020) How Loud Is the Underwater Noise from
Operating Offshore Wind Turbines? The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 148,
5, 2885-2893. doi: https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0002453.
Townsend CH (1935) The Distribution of Certain Whales as Shown by Logbook Records of
American Whaleships. Zoologica 19, 1-50. doi,
https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/51225956#page/125/mode/1up.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
90
Tulloch V, Pirotta V, Grech A, Crocetti S, Double M, How J, Kemper C, Meager J, Peddemors V,
Waples K, Watson M & Harcourt R (2020) Long-Term Trends and a Risk Analysis of
Cetacean Entanglements and Bycatch in Fisheries Gear in Australian Waters. Biodiversity
and Conservation 29, 1, 251-282. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01881-x.
Tulloch VJD, Plagányi ÉE, Brown C, Richardson AJ & Matear R (2019) Future Recovery of Baleen
Whales Is Imperiled by Climate Change. Global Change Biology 25, 4, 1263-1281. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14573.
Valenzuela LO, Sironi M, Rowntree VJ & Seger JON (2009) Isotopic and Genetic Evidence for
Culturally Inherited Site Fidelity to Feeding Grounds in Southern Right Whales
(Eubalaena Australis). Molecular Ecology 18, 5, 782-791. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.04069.x.
van der Hoop J, Corkeron P & Moore M (2017) Entanglement Is a Costly Life-History Stage in
Large Whales. Ecology and Evolution 7, 1, 92-106. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.2615.
Van Parijs SM, Clark CW, Sousa-Lima RS, Parks SE, Rankin S, Risch D & Van Opzeeland IC (2009)
Management and Research Applications of Real-Time and Archival Passive Acoustic
Sensors over Varying Temporal and Spatial Scales. Marine Ecology Progress Series 395,
21-26. doi: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08123.
Veytia D, Corney S, Meiners KM, Kawaguchi S, Murphy EJ & Bestley S (2020) Circumpolar
Projections of Antarctic Krill Growth Potential. Nature Climate Change 10, 6, 568-575.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0758-4.
Walker MM, Kirschvink JL, Ahmed G & Dizon AE (1992) Evidence That Fin Whales Respond to
the Geomagnetic Field During Migration. Journal of Experimental Biology 171, 1, 67-78.
doi: 10.1242/jeb.171.1.67.
Ward R, McCauley RD, Gavrilov AN & Charlton CM (2019) Underwater Sound Sources and
Ambient Noise in Fowlers Bay, South Australia, During the Austral Winter. Acoustics
Australia 47, 1, 21-32. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40857-019-00150-9.
Ward RN (2020) Southern Right Whale Vocalisations, and the “Spot” Call in Australian Waters:
Characteristics; Spatial and Temporal Patterns; and a Potential Source - the Southern
Right Whale. PhD PhD, Curtin University.
Watson M, Stamation K & Charlton C (2021) Calving Rates, Long-Range Movements and Site
Fidelity of Southern Right Whales (Eubalaena Australis) in South-Eastern Australia.
Journal of Cetacean Research Management 22, 1, 17-28. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.47536/jcrm.v22i1.210.
Watson M, Westhorpe I, Bannister J, Harcourt R & Hedley S (2015) Assessment of Numbers and
Distribution of Southern Right Whales in South-East Australia – Year 2. Australian Marine
Mammal Centre Grants Program Final Report for Project 13/29.
Webster TA, Dawson SM, Rayment WJ, Parks SE & Van Parijs SM (2016) Quantitative Analysis of
the Acoustic Repertoire of Southern Right Whales in New Zealand. J Acoust Soc Am 140,
1, 322. doi: https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4955066.
Wise JP, Wise SS, Kraus S, Shaffiey F, Grau M, Chen TL, Perkins C, Thompson WD, Zheng T, Zhang
Y, Romano T & O’Hara T (2008) Hexavalent Chromium Is Cytotoxic and Genotoxic to the
North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena Glacialis) Lung and Testes Fibroblasts. Mutation
Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis 650, 1, 30-38. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2007.09.007.
Zantis LJ, Bosker T, Lawler F, Nelms SE, O'Rorke R, Constantine R, Sewell M & Carroll EL (2022)
Assessing Microplastic Exposure of Large Marine Filter-Feeders. Science of The Total
Environment 818, 151815. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151815.
Zeh JM, Dombroski JRG & Parks SE (2022) Preferred Shallow-Water Nursery Sites Provide
Acoustic Crypsis to Southern Right Whale Mother–Calf Pairs. Royal Society Open Science
9, 5, 220241. doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.220241.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water
91